Dedication

ix

Preface

xiii

Acknowledgments

xvii

About the Authors

xix

Introduction

xxv

1

An Overview of the Artificial Assemblage, the Colubridae: A Brief Summary of Taxonomic Considerations

1

2

Differences Between Buccal Gland Secretion and Associated Delivery Systems of "True" Venomous Snakes and "Colubrid" Snakes: Low- Versus High-Pressure Gland Function and Canal iculated Versus Solid Dentition

7

2.1

Basic Considerations Regarding Gland Structure and Function

7

2.2

Overview of Hypotheses for the Evolution of Venom-Delivery Systems

16

2.3

Theories Considering the Evolution of Canaliculated Fangs and Enlarged Grooved Teeth

18

2.4

Duvernoy's Glands and Venom Glands: A Question of Semantics?

25

3

A Summary of the Toxinology of Duvernoy's Secretions: A Brief Overview of the History of Coiubrid Oral Secretion Research

27

4

Medically Significant Bites by "Colubrid" Snakes

33

4.1

Typical Features of Documented Cases and Evidence-Based Risk

33

4.1.1

Epidemiology of Bites from "Colubrid" Snakes

122

4.1.2

Circumstances Associated with Species Capable of Inflicting Life-Threatening Envenoming

135

4.2

Some Representative Genera: Typical Features of Bites and an Overview of Their Natural History and Toxinology

136

4.2.1

Genus Boiga: Background and General Features of Documented Bites

136

4.2.2

Genus Philodryas spp.: Background and General Features of Documented Bites

142

4.2.3

Genus Thamnophis spp.: Background and General Features of Documented Bites

159

4.2.4

Genus Heterodon spp.: Background and General Features of Documented Bites

163

4.2.5

Genera Hemorrhois spp., Platyceps spp., Hieropkis spp., and Coluber spp.: Background and General Features of Documented Bites

168

4.2.6

Genus Alsophis spp.: Background and General Features of Documented Bites

171

4.3

Life-Threatening and Fatal Cases: "Venomous Colubrids" and Assessment of Evidence-Based Risk

178

4.3.1

Dispholidus typus, Thelotornis capensis, and Thelotornis Icirtlandii: Background and General Features of Documented Bites

178

4.3.2

Rhabdophis subminiatus and Rhabdophis tigrinus: Background and General Features of Documented Bites

187

4.3.3

Comparison of Major Features of Hazard Level 1 Colubrids (Figure 4.3) (Dispholidus typus. Thelotornis capensis, Thelotornis kirtlandii, Rhabdophis tigrinus, and Rhabdophis subminiatus)

195

4.3.4

Proven Guilty Without a Trial: Three Additional Unsupported Reports of Fatal Outcomes after Bites by Tachymenis peruviana, Oligodon arnensis, and Xenodon severus

196

4.4

Aberrant Cases and Representative Cases Without Clear Etiology: A Critical Assessment of Risk

199

4.4.1

Boiga irregularis

199

4.4.2

Malpolon monspessulanus

207

4.4.3

Hydwdynastes gigas

212

4.4.4

Philodryas olfersii latirostris

216

4.4.5

Platyceps (Coluber) najadum: A Fatal Case of Progressive Neuropathy from a Colubrid Bite?

219

4.4.6

Hierophis (Coluber) viridiflavus: A Case of Neurotoxic Colubrine Bite or a More Common Etiology?

222

4.4.7

"Venomous" Bites by Nonvenomous Lizards?

225

4.5

Pitfalls Noted in Documented Cases: Differentiating Perceived Versus Evidence-Based Risk

228

4.5.1

Examples of Pitfalls Noted in Documented Cases

228

4.5.2

Perceived Versus Evidence-Based Risk: Human Response to Trauma and Somatosensory Amplification

238

4.6

Recommendations for Management of Medically Significant "Colubrid" Bites

241

4.6.1

General

241

4.6.2

Specific

242

5

Summary and Conclusions

271

Appendix A

Representative Unverified Cases of Medically Significant "Colubrid" Bites Posted on the Internet

277

Appendix B

Representative Lethal Potency Ranges and Yields of Duvernoy's Secretions and Venoms from Selected Non-Front-Fanged Colubroid Snakes

283

Appendix C

Strategies of Management of Gram-Negative Septicemia: Are There Lessons to Be Learned for Managing Venom-Induced Coagulopathies?

287

Appendix D

Legal Considerations Regarding Private Ownership of Venomous Snakes (Including Hazard Level 1 "Colubrids"): An Opinionated Essay

289

Appendix E

List of Osteological Specimens Examined at AMNH

293

Additional Recommended Reading

295

A Call for Cases

301

Bibliography

303