Table
of Contents
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PART I |
INTRODUCTION |
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Chapter 1 |
Research as
an Important Way of Knowing |
3 |
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Why is Research
Necessary? |
4 |
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What is Research? |
6 |
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Research as Multiple Systematic Strategies |
7 |
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Research as Thinking and Action Processes |
7 |
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Research as Four Basic Characteristics |
10 |
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Summary |
12 |
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Chapter 2 |
Essentials
of Research |
14 |
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Ten Essentials of
Research |
14 |
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Identify a Philosophical Foundation |
16 |
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Frame a Research Problem |
17 |
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Determine and Evaluate Supporting Knowledge |
18 |
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Identify a Theory Base and Evaluate its Adequacy |
18 |
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Develop a Specific Question or Query |
19 |
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Select a Design Strategy |
20 |
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Set Study Boundaries |
20 |
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Obtain Information |
21 |
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Analyze Information and Draw Conclusions |
21 |
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Share and Use Research Knowledge |
21 |
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Ethical
Considerations |
21 |
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Summary |
21 |
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PART II |
THINKING PROCESSES |
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Chapter 3 |
Philosophical
Foundations |
24 |
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Philosophical
Foundations of Experimental-Type Research |
25 |
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Philosophical
Foundations of Naturalistic Inquiry |
26 |
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Implications of
Philosophical Differences for Design |
26 |
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Research Traditions |
27 |
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Experimental-Type Research |
27 |
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Naturalistic Inquiry |
28 |
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Integrating the Two
Research Traditions |
28 |
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Selecting a Research
Tradition and Design Strategy |
31 |
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Purpose of Research |
31 |
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Preference for Knowing |
33 |
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Level of Knowledge Development |
33 |
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Summary |
34 |
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Chapter 4 |
Framing the
Problem |
36 |
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Identifying a Topic |
37 |
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Professional Experience |
37 |
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Societal Trends |
38 |
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Professional Trends |
39 |
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Research Studies |
39 |
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Existing Theory |
40 |
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Framing a Research
Problem |
40 |
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Interest, Relevance, and Need |
41 |
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Research Purpose |
41 |
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Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge) |
42 |
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Resources |
42 |
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Summary |
42 |
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Chapter 5 |
Developing
a Knowledge Base through Review of the Literature |
44 |
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Why Review the
Literature? |
45 |
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Determine What Research has Been Conducted on the Topic of Inquiry |
45 |
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Determine Level of Theory and Knowledge Development Relevant to Your
Project |
46 |
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Determine Relevance of the Current Knowledge Base to Your Problem Area |
48 |
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Provide a Rationale for Selection of the Research Strategy |
49 |
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How to Conduct a
Literature Search |
49 |
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Step 1: Determine When to Conduct a Search |
49 |
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Step 2: Delimit What is Searched |
50 |
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Step 3: Access Databases for Periodicals, Books, and Documents |
50 |
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Step 4: Organize Information |
53 |
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Step 5: Critically Evaluate the Literature |
54 |
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Step 6: Write the Literature Review |
54 |
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Summary |
56 |
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Chapter 6 |
Theory in
Research |
58 |
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Why is Theory
important? |
59 |
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What is Theory? |
60 |
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Levels of Abstraction |
61 |
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Role of Theory in
Design Selection |
63 |
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Theory in
Experimental-Type Research |
64 |
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Theory in
Naturalistic Inquiry |
66 |
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Summary |
68 |
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Chapter 7 |
Formulating
Research Questions and Queries |
69 |
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Research Questions
in Experimental-Type Design |
70 |
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Level 1: Questions that Seek to Describe Phenomena |
70 |
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Level 2: Questions that Explore Relationships Among Phenomena |
72 |
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Level 3: Questions that Test Knowledge |
73 |
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Developing Experimental-Type Research Questions |
74 |
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Hypotheses |
75 |
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Research Queries in
Naturalistic Inquiry |
76 |
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Classic Ethnography |
77 |
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Phenomenology |
78 |
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Grounded Theory |
79 |
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Narrative |
79 |
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Developing Naturalistic Research Queries |
79 |
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Integrating Research
Approaches |
80 |
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Summary |
81 |
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Chapter 8 |
Language
and Thinking Processes |
83 |
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Experimental-Type
Language and Thinking Processes |
84 |
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Sequence of Experimental-Type Research |
85 |
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Structure of Experimental-Type Research |
86 |
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Plan of Design |
88 |
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Experimental-Type Design Summary |
94 |
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Naturalistic
Language and Thinking Processes |
95 |
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Purpose |
95 |
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Context Specificity |
95 |
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Complexity and Pluralistic Perspective of Reality |
96 |
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Transferability of Findings |
96 |
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Flexibility |
96 |
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Language |
97 |
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Emic and Etic Perspectives |
97 |
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Gathering Information and Analysis |
98 |
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Naturalistic Design Summary |
98 |
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Integrated and
Mixed-Method Approaches |
99 |
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Summary |
99 |
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PART III |
DESIGN APPROACHES |
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Chapter 9 |
Experimental-Type
Designs |
102 |
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True-Experimental
Designs |
103 |
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Randomization |
104 |
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Control Group |
105 |
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Manipulation |
105 |
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True-Experimental
Design Variations |
105 |
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Posttest-Only Designs |
106 |
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Solomon Four-Group Designs |
106 |
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Factorial Designs |
107 |
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Counterbalance Designs |
107 |
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True-Experimental Design Summary |
108 |
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Quasi-Experimental
Designs |
109 |
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Nonequivalent Control Group Designs |
109 |
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Interrupted Time Series Designs |
110 |
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Combined Design |
111 |
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Quasi-Experimental Design Summary |
111 |
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Pre-Experimental
Designs |
111 |
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One-Shot Case Study |
112 |
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Pretest-Posttest Design |
112 |
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Static Group Comparison |
113 |
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Pre-Experimental Design Summary |
113 |
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Nonexperimental Designs |
113 |
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Survey Designs |
114 |
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Passive Observation Designs |
115 |
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Ex Post Facto Designs |
115 |
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Nonexperimental Design Summary |
115 |
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Experimental-Type
Meta-Analysis |
115 |
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Geographic Techniques |
116 |
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Epidemiology |
117 |
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Clinical Trial
Methodology |
118 |
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Phases of Clinical Trials |
118 |
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Blinding (Masking) |
119 |
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Randomization Scheme |
120 |
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Criteria for
Selecting Appropriate and Adequate Experimental-Type Designs |
120 |
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Summary |
123 |
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Chapter 10 |
Naturalistic
Inquiry Designs |
124 |
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Endogenous Research |
126 |
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Participatory Action
Research |
127 |
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Critical Theory |
128 |
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Phenomenology |
129 |
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Heuristic Research |
130 |
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Ethnography |
131 |
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Narrative Inquiry |
132 |
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Life History |
133 |
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Grounded Theory |
134 |
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Naturalistic
Meta-Analysis |
135 |
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Summary |
136 |
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PART IV |
ACTION PROCESSES |
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Chapter 11 |
Setting the
Boundaries of a Study |
141 |
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Why Set Boundaries
to a Study? |
142 |
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Implications of
Boundary Setting |
143 |
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Specifying the Scope
of Participation: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria |
144 |
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General Guidelines
for Bounding Studies |
146 |
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Subjects, Respondents, Informants, Participants, Locations,
Conceptual Boundaries, Virtual Boundaries |
146 |
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Summary |
147 |
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Chapter 12 |
Protecting
the Boundaries |
148 |
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Principles for
Protecting Human Subjects |
149 |
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Full Disclosure |
149 |
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Confidentiality |
150 |
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Voluntary Participation |
151 |
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Belmont Report |
152 |
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Institutional Review
Board |
152 |
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Three Levels of Review |
154 |
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Informed Consent
Process |
154 |
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Study Approval and
Monitoring |
156 |
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Developing an
Informed Consent Document |
157 |
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Involving Vulnerable
Populations |
157 |
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Specialized
Oversight of Experimental-Type Designs |
158 |
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Summary |
159 |
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Chapter 13 |
Boundary
Setting in Experimental-Type Designs |
160 |
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Sampling Process |
161 |
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Probability Sampling |
163 |
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Simple Random Sampling |
165 |
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Systematic Sampling |
166 |
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Stratified Random Sampling |
167 |
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Cluster Sampling |
168 |
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Nonprobability Methods |
168 |
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Convenience Sampling |
169 |
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Purposive Sampling |
169 |
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Snowball Sampling |
169 |
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Quota Sampling |
169 |
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Sampling without Human Subjects |
170 |
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Sampling in the Virtual Environment |
170 |
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Comparing Sample to
Population |
171 |
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Determining Sample
Size |
172 |
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Summary |
173 |
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Chapter 14 |
Boundary
Setting in Naturalistic Designs |
175 |
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Ways of Setting
Boundaries |
176 |
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Geographic Location |
176 |
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Cultural Groups |
177 |
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Personal Experience |
177 |
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Concepts |
178 |
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Involving Research
Participants |
179 |
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Maximum Variation |
180 |
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Homogeneous Selection |
180 |
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Theory-Based Selection |
180 |
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Confirming and Disconfirming Cases |
181 |
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Extreme or Deviant Case |
181 |
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Typical Case |
181 |
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How Many Study Participants? |
181 |
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Process of Setting
Boundaries and Selecting Informants |
182 |
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Ethical
Considerations |
184 |
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Summary |
184 |
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Chapter 15 |
Collecting
Information |
186 |
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Principles of
Information Collection |
187 |
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Looking, Watching,
Listening, Reading, and Recording |
188 |
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Asking |
188 |
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Interviews |
189 |
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Questionnaires |
190 |
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Obtaining and
Examining Materials |
190 |
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Unobtrusive Methodology |
191 |
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Secondary Data Analysis |
191 |
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Geographic Data |
191 |
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Information in the Virtual and Information Technology Environment |
192 |
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Artifact Review |
193 |
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Summary |
193 |
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Chapter 16 |
Measurement
in Experimental-Type Research |
194 |
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Measurement Process |
195 |
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Levels of Measurement |
196 |
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Nominal |
197 |
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Ordinal |
197 |
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Interval |
198 |
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Ratio |
198 |
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Determining Appropriate Level |
198 |
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Measurement Scales |
199 |
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Likert-Type Scale |
199 |
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Guttman Scale |
200 |
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Semantic Differential Scale |
200 |
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Confidence in
Instruments |
200 |
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Reliability |
201 |
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Validity |
203 |
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Considerations in
Selecting a Measure |
206 |
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Purpose of Assessment |
206 |
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Psychometric Properties |
206 |
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Population |
206 |
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Information Sources |
207 |
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Item Selection |
208 |
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Response Set |
209 |
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Constructing an
Instrument |
209 |
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Administering the
Instrument |
210 |
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Summary |
210 |
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Chapter 17 |
Gathering
Information in Naturalistic Inquiry |
212 |
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Four
Information-Gathering Principles |
213 |
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Investigator Involvement |
213 |
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Information Collection and Analysis |
214 |
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Time Commitment in the Field |
215 |
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Multiple Information-Gathering Strategies |
215 |
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Overview of Principles |
216 |
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Information-Gathering
Process |
217 |
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Selecting the Context |
217 |
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Gaining Access |
217 |
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“Learning the Ropes” |
219 |
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Information-Gathering
Strategies |
220 |
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Observing: Looking, Watching, and Listening |
220 |
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Asking |
221 |
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Four Components of Asking Strategies |
222 |
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Examining Materials |
224 |
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Recording Information |
224 |
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Field Notes |
225 |
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Voice Recording |
225 |
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Imaging |
226 |
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Accuracy in
Collecting Information |
227 |
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Multiple Data Gatherers |
227 |
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Triangulation (Crystallization) |
227 |
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Saturation |
228 |
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Member Checking |
228 |
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Reflexivity |
229 |
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Audit Trail |
229 |
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Peer Debriefing |
229 |
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Summary |
230 |
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Chapter 18 |
Preparing
and Organizing Data |
232 |
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Managing Data in
Experimental-Type Research |
233 |
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Managing Data in
Naturalistic Inquiry |
236 |
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Practical
Considerations |
240 |
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Summary |
240 |
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Chapter 19 |
Statistical
Analysis for Experimental-Type Research |
242 |
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What is Statistical
Analysis? |
243 |
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Level 1: Descriptive
Statistics |
244 |
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Frequency Distribution |
245 |
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Measures of Central Tendency |
247 |
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Measures of Variability |
250 |
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Bivariate Descriptive Statistics |
252 |
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Level 2: Drawing
Inferences |
255 |
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Action 1: State the Hypothesis |
256 |
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Action 2: Select a Significance Level |
257 |
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Action 3: Compute a Calculated Value |
258 |
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Action 4: Obtain a Critical Value |
261 |
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Action 5: Reject or Fail to Reject the Null Hypothesis |
262 |
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Level 3:
Associations and Relationships |
263 |
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Geospatial Analysis: GIS |
263 |
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Other Visual Analysis Action Processes |
264 |
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Summary |
268 |
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Chapter 20 |
Analysis in
Naturalistic Inquiry |
270 |
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Strategies and
Stages in Naturalistic Analysis |
271 |
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Stage One: Analysis
in the Field |
272 |
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Engaging in Thinking Process |
273 |
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Developing Categories |
273 |
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Developing Taxonomies |
275 |
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Discovering Underlying Themes |
275 |
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Stage Two: Formal
Report Preparation |
276 |
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Examples of
Analytical Processes |
276 |
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Grounded Theory |
277 |
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Ethnography |
277 |
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Accuracy and Rigor
in Analysis |
278 |
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Triangulation (Crystallization) |
279 |
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Saturation |
280 |
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Member Checking |
280 |
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Reflexivity |
280 |
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Audit Trail |
280 |
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Peer Debriefing |
280 |
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Summary |
280 |
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Chapter 21 |
Sharing
Research Knowledge Before the Study |
282 |
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Reasons for Sharing
Before Field Engagement |
282 |
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Where to Seek
Support for a Research Idea |
283 |
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Who Reads a Proposal? |
285 |
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Writing a Research
Proposal |
286 |
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Basic Principles |
286 |
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Common Elements of a Research Proposal |
286 |
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Special
Considerations |
293 |
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Preparing an Experimental-Type Proposal |
293 |
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Preparing a Naturalistic Proposal |
294 |
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Preparing a Mixed-Method Proposal |
294 |
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Submitting the Proposal |
294 |
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Summary |
295 |
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Chapter 22 |
Sharing
Research Knowledge during and After the Study |
296 |
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Writing and
Preparation Guidelines |
297 |
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Clarity |
297 |
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Purpose |
297 |
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Multiple Audiences |
298 |
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Citations |
298 |
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Writing and
Presenting an Experimental-Type Report |
299 |
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CONSORT Reporting |
300 |
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Preparing Tables and
Figures |
300 |
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Preparing a
Naturalistic Report |
301 |
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Ethnography |
302 |
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Phenomenology |
303 |
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Preparing an
Integrated Report |
303 |
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Accessibility |
303 |
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Linguistic
Sensitivity |
304 |
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Dissemination |
305 |
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Sharing Written Reports |
305 |
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Publishing Your Work |
305 |
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Sharing Your Research through Other Methods |
305 |
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|
Summary |
305 |
|
PART V |
IMPROVING PRACTICE
THROUGH INQUIRY |
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Chapter 23 |
Case Study
Designs |
309 |
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What is a Case Study? |
309 |
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Structure of Case
Studies |
310 |
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Structural Dimension |
310 |
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Number of Cases |
311 |
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Design Sequence |
312 |
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Experimental-Type Approach |
312 |
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|
Naturalistic Approach |
314 |
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Mixed-Method Approach |
314 |
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Summary |
314 |
|
Chapter 24 |
Reciprocal
Role of Research and Practice |
316 |
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Evidence-Based
Practice |
316 |
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Definitions and Models |
317 |
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Approaches to Identifying Evidence |
318 |
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Limitations of Evidence-Based Practice |
318 |
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Treatment Fidelity |
320 |
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Practice-Based Research |
321 |
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Translation Research |
321 |
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Evaluation Practice |
322 |
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Problem and Need Clarification |
322 |
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Reflexive intervention |
322 |
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Monitoring (Process Assessment) |
323 |
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|
Resource Analysis |
323 |
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Consideration of Influences on the intervention |
323 |
|
|
Outcome Assessment |
323 |
|
|
Summary |
323 |
|
Chapter 25 |
Stories
from the Field |
325 |
|
|
Just Beginning |
325 |
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|
What did You Expect? |
326 |
|
|
In Search of
Significance! |
326 |
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|
Is Health Care
Effective? |
326 |
|
|
Elevator Insight |
326 |
|
|
A “Good” Research
Subject |
327 |
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|
A “Bad” Research
Subject |
327 |
|
|
Literacy is Not
Literacy |
327 |
|
|
Native American? |
328 |
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|
The Pearson, or the
Moral of the Coding Story |
328 |
|
|
If You can’t
Deliver, Don’t Ask |
328 |
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|
Don’t Ask if You’re
not Prepared to Answer |
328 |
|
|
No Detail Too Small |
328 |
|
|
Wow, You Got It! |
329 |
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|
APPENDIX |
330 |
|
|
Caregiver Permission |
331 |
|
|
What is an Informed Consent? |
331 |
|
|
Introduction and Study Purpose |
331 |
|
|
Procedures/Treatment |
331 |
|
|
Risks/Discomforts |
332 |
|
|
Alternative Treatments |
333 |
|
|
Confidentiality |
333 |
|
|
Compensation in the Case of injury |
334 |
|
|
Benefits to Subject |
334 |
|
|
Payment |
334 |
|
|
Contact Information |
334 |
|
|
Significant New Findings |
335 |
|
|
Voluntary Consent and Subject Withdrawal |
335 |
|
|
Non-Waiver of Legal Rights Statement |
335 |
|
|
Informed Consent |
337 |
|
|
Informed Consent
Checklist |
338 |
|
|
Other Suggestions |
339 |
|
|
Sample Informed
Consent Form |
340 |
|
|
What Will You be Asked to Do? |
340 |
|
|
Risks |
340 |
|
|
Benefits |
340 |
|
|
Confidentiality |
340 |
|
|
Voluntary |
340 |
|
|
Contact Information |
340 |
|
|
What is an Informed Consent? |
342 |
|
|
Introduction and Study Purpose |
342 |
|
|
Procedures/Treatment |
342 |
|
|
Risks/Discomforts |
343 |
|
|
Alternative Treatments |
343 |
|
|
Confidentiality |
343 |
|
|
Compensation in the Case of Injury |
344 |
|
|
Benefits to Subject |
344 |
|
|
New Findings |
345 |
|
|
Payment |
345 |
|
|
Additional Information |
345 |
|
|
Disclosure of Financial Interest |
345 |
|
|
Voluntary Consent and Subject Withdrawal |
345 |
|
|
Non-Waiver of Legal Rights Statement |
346 |
|
|
Description of
Audiotape, Photography, Videotape, or
Film |
347 |
|
|
Glossary |
348 |
|
|
Index |
357 |
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