Table of Contents
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|
|
|
|
|
Preface |
xv |
|
|
Contributors |
xvii |
|
1 |
Introduction and Background |
1 |
|
1.1 |
Characterization of Chemical
Contaminants |
2 |
|
1.2 |
Human Exposures and Dosimetry |
7 |
|
1.3 |
Chemical Exposures and Dose to
Target Tissues |
8 |
|
1.4 |
Concentration of Toxic Chemicals
in Human Microenvironments |
9 |
|
1.5 |
Inhalation Exposures and
Respiratory Tract Effects |
12 |
|
1.6 |
Ingestion Exposures and
Gastrointestinal Tract Effects |
18 |
|
1.7 |
Skin Exposure and Dermal Effects |
19 |
|
1.8 |
Absorption through Membranes and
Systemic Circulation |
20 |
|
1.9 |
Accumulation in Target Tissues
and Dosimetric Models |
21 |
|
1.10 |
Indirect Measures of Past
Exposures |
22 |
|
1.11 |
Characterization of Health |
23 |
|
1.12 |
Exposure–Response Relationships |
25 |
|
1.13 |
Study Options for Health Effects
Studies |
31 |
|
|
References |
35 |
|
2 |
Perspectives on Individual and
Community Risks |
39 |
|
2.1 |
Nature of Risk |
39 |
|
2.2 |
Identification and
Quantification of Risks |
41 |
|
2.3 |
Risk Communication |
46 |
|
2.4 |
Risk Reduction |
49 |
|
|
References |
52 |
|
3 |
Reducing Risks—An Environmental
Engineering Perspective |
55 |
|
3.1 |
Introduction |
55 |
|
3.2 |
Environmental Risk-Based
Decision Making |
56 |
|
3.3 |
Applications and Use |
60 |
|
3.4 |
Recent Information |
67 |
|
3.5 |
Integrated Assessments |
71 |
|
3.6 |
Summary |
72 |
|
|
References |
73 |
|
4 |
Clinical Perspective on
Respiratory Toxicology |
77 |
|
4.1 |
Concepts of Exposure |
78 |
|
4.2 |
Tools for Studying Individuals |
79 |
|
4.3 |
Tools for Studying Populations |
88 |
|
4.4 |
Cardiovascular Responses |
95 |
|
4.5 |
Limitations of Clinical and
Epidemiological Assessments of the Effects of Inhaled Agents |
96 |
|
4.6 |
Advice and Counseling of Patients |
97 |
|
4.7 |
Summary |
99 |
|
|
References |
100 |
|
5 |
Industrial Perspectives:
Translating the Knowledge Base into Corporate Policies, Programs, and
Practices for Health Protection |
107 |
|
5.1 |
The Life Cycle of a Chemical:
Many Points for Possible Intervention |
108 |
|
5.2 |
The Knowledge Base for the
Identification of Hazard Control Strategies |
109 |
|
5.3 |
Industrial Hygiene and
Occupational Health Programs: Implementing the Knowledge Base |
111 |
|
5.4 |
Product Stewardship |
114 |
|
5.5 |
Responsible Care® |
117 |
|
5.6 |
Concluding Perspective |
119 |
|
6 |
Drinking Water Disinfection
By-Products |
121 |
|
6.1 |
Introduction |
121 |
|
6.2 |
Chemical Methods of Disinfection |
122 |
|
6.3 |
Chemical Nature and Occurrence
of Disinfectant By-Products |
124 |
|
6.4 |
Associations of Human Disease
with Drinking Water Disinfection |
132 |
|
6.5 |
General Toxicological Properties
of Disinfectants |
144 |
|
6.6 |
General Toxicological Properties
of Disinfectant By-Products |
145 |
|
6.7 |
Carcinogenic Properties of
Disinfectants |
154 |
|
6.8 |
Carcinogenic By-Products of
Disinfectants |
154 |
|
6.9 |
Effects of Disinfectants and their
By-Products on Reproduction |
165 |
|
6.10 |
Effects on Development |
168 |
|
6.11 |
By-Products of Potential Interest |
170 |
|
6.12 |
Summary and Conclusions |
172 |
|
|
Glossary |
174 |
|
|
References |
176 |
|
7 |
Food |
197 |
|
7.1 |
Introduction |
197 |
|
7.2 |
Legal and Regulatory Framework
in the |
201 |
|
7.3 |
Toxicity Test Requirements and
Safety Criteria |
203 |
|
7.4 |
Substances Intentionally Added
to Food |
208 |
|
7.5 |
Food Contaminants of Industrial
Origin |
216 |
|
7.6 |
Constituents and Contaminants of
Natural Origin |
219 |
|
7.7 |
Food Safety in the European Union |
229 |
|
7.8 |
Summary and Conclusion |
234 |
|
|
Acronyms |
235 |
|
|
References |
235 |
|
8 |
Volatile Organic Compounds and |
241 |
|
8.1 |
Introduction |
241 |
|
8.2 |
Prevalence of Exposures to
Volatile Organic Compounds |
242 |
|
8.3 |
Health and Volatile Organic
Compounds |
245 |
|
8.4 |
Prevalence of the |
247 |
|
8.5 |
Dose–Response Relationships for
Health Effects Caused by Low-Level VOC Exposure |
249 |
|
8.6 |
Guidelines for Volatile Organic
Compounds in Nonindustrial Indoor Environments-Principles for Establishment
of Guidelines |
251 |
|
|
References |
254 |
|
9 |
Formaldehyde and Other Aldehydes |
257 |
|
9.1 |
Background |
257 |
|
9.2 |
Single-Exposure Health Effects |
269 |
|
9.3 |
Effects of Multiple Exposures |
281 |
|
|
References |
292 |
|
10 |
Ambient Air Particulate Matter |
317 |
|
10.1 |
Sources and Pathways for Human
Exposure |
318 |
|
10.2 |
Ambient Air PM Concentrations |
323 |
|
10.3 |
Extent of Population Exposures
to Ambient Air PM |
326 |
|
10.4 |
Nature of the Evidence for Human
Health Effects of Ambient Air PM |
328 |
|
10.5 |
Epidemiological Evidence for
Human Health Effects of Ambient Air PM |
329 |
|
10.6 |
Discussion and Current Knowledge
on the Health Effects of PM |
354 |
|
10.7 |
Standards and Exposure Guidelines |
356 |
|
|
References |
359 |
|
11 |
Arsenic |
367 |
|
11.1 |
Introduction |
367 |
|
11.2 |
Physical and Chemical Properties
of Environmental as and its Compounds |
368 |
|
11.3 |
Environmental Exposures to the
General Population: Sources and Standards |
371 |
|
11.4 |
Pathways and Kinetics for in vivo Uptake, Distribution, and
Elimination |
374 |
|
11.5 |
As Essentiality |
375 |
|
11.6 |
Health Effects and Exposure–Response
Relationships |
376 |
|
11.7 |
Biomarkers of Exposure,
Susceptibility, and Effect |
380 |
|
11.8 |
Mitigating Effects and
Controlling Exposures |
381 |
|
|
References |
383 |
|
12 |
Asbestos and Other Mineral and
Vitreous Fibers |
395 |
|
12.1 |
Important Special Properties of
Fibers |
395 |
|
12.2 |
Exposures to Fibers |
399 |
|
12.3 |
Fiber Deposition in the
Respiratory Tract |
402 |
|
12.4 |
Fiber Retention, Translocation,
Disintegration, and Dissolution |
404 |
|
12.5 |
Properties of Fibers Relevant to
Disease |
413 |
|
12.6 |
Fiber-Related Diseases/Processes |
413 |
|
12.7 |
Review of Biological Effects of
Size-Classified Fibers in Animals and Humans |
415 |
|
12.8 |
Critical Fiber Parameters
Affecting Disease Pathogenesis |
420 |
|
12.9 |
Exposure–Response Relationships
for Asbestos-Related Lung Cancer and Mesothelioma: Human Experience |
429 |
|
12.10 |
Risk Assessment Issues |
438 |
|
12.11 |
Key Factors Affecting Fiber
Dosimetry and Toxicity: Recapitulation and Synthesis |
443 |
|
|
Acknowledgments |
446 |
|
|
Acronyms |
446 |
|
|
References |
446 |
|
13 |
Benzene |
459 |
|
13.1 |
Benzene Exposure |
460 |
|
13.2 |
Uptake |
462 |
|
13.3 |
Metabolism and Disposition |
462 |
|
13.4 |
Mechanisms of Toxicity |
471 |
|
13.5 |
Risk Assessment |
482 |
|
|
References |
486 |
|
14 |
Carbon Monoxide |
499 |
|
14.1 |
Introduction |
499 |
|
14.2 |
CO Exposure and Dosimetry |
500 |
|
14.3 |
Mechanisms of CO Toxicity |
501 |
|
14.4 |
Populations at Risk of Health
Effects Due to CO Exposure |
502 |
|
14.5 |
Regulatory Background |
503 |
|
14.6 |
Health Effects of CO |
505 |
|
14.7 |
Summary and Conclusions |
515 |
|
|
Acknowledgments |
517 |
|
|
References |
517 |
|
15 |
Chromium |
529 |
|
15.1 |
Introduction |
529 |
|
15.2 |
Essentiality |
529 |
|
15.3 |
Environmental Exposures |
530 |
|
15.4 |
Toxicological Effects |
535 |
|
15.5 |
Exposure Guidelines and Standards |
543 |
|
|
References |
544 |
|
16 |
Diesel Exhaust |
551 |
|
16.1 |
Historical Overview |
551 |
|
16.2 |
Composition of Diesel Exhaust |
553 |
|
16.3 |
Exposures to Diesel Exhaust |
559 |
|
16.4 |
Health Effects |
561 |
|
16.5 |
Current Issues |
609 |
|
|
Acknowledgments |
613 |
|
|
References |
613 |
|
17 |
Dioxins and Dioxin-Like Chemicals |
633 |
|
17.1 |
Introduction |
633 |
|
17.2 |
Sources |
634 |
|
17.3 |
Toxicological Effects and
Mechanisms of Action |
640 |
|
17.4 |
Mechanisms of Action |
643 |
|
|
References |
651 |
|
18 |
Endocrine Active Chemicals:
Broadening the Scope |
661 |
|
18.1 |
Introduction |
661 |
|
18.2 |
Biomarkers: Terminology from
Various Disciplines |
664 |
|
18.3 |
End Points and Clinical Signs
Associated with Endocrine Activity |
666 |
|
18.4 |
Environmental Chemicals and End
Points: Case Examples |
675 |
|
18.5 |
Developmental Origins of Health
and Disease |
681 |
|
18.6 |
Transgenerational Effects |
684 |
|
18.7 |
Conclusion |
686 |
|
|
References |
687 |
|
19 |
Secondhand Smoke |
703 |
|
19.1 |
Exposure to Secondhand Smoke |
705 |
|
19.2 |
Health Effects of Involuntary
Smoking in Children |
711 |
|
19.3 |
Health Effects of Involuntary
Smoking in Adults |
722 |
|
19.4 |
SHS and Coronary Heart Disease |
730 |
|
19.5 |
Respiratory Symptoms and
Illnesses in Adults |
734 |
|
19.6 |
Summary |
740 |
|
|
References |
741 |
|
20 |
Lead and Compounds |
757 |
|
20.1 |
Introduction |
757 |
|
20.2 |
Physical/Chemical Properties and
Behavior of Lead and its Compounds |
758 |
|
20.3 |
Lead in the Environment and
Human Exposure |
761 |
|
20.4 |
Lead Absorption |
766 |
|
20.5 |
Distribution |
771 |
|
20.6 |
Kinetics |
774 |
|
20.7 |
Biomarkers |
781 |
|
20.8 |
Health Effects |
785 |
|
20.9 |
Mechanisms Underlying Lead
Toxicity |
792 |
|
20.10 |
Treatment of Lead Toxicity |
796 |
|
|
References |
798 |
|
21 |
Mercury |
811 |
|
21.1 |
Introduction |
811 |
|
21.2 |
Chemistry |
811 |
|
21.3 |
Sources |
812 |
|
21.4 |
Environmental Exposures |
813 |
|
21.5 |
Occupational Exposures |
815 |
|
21.6 |
Kinetics and Metabolism |
816 |
|
21.7 |
Health Effects |
818 |
|
21.8 |
Prevention |
820 |
|
|
References |
821 |
|
22 |
Nitrogen Oxides |
823 |
|
22.1 |
Introduction |
823 |
|
22.2 |
Sources |
823 |
|
22.3 |
Nitrogen Dioxide |
824 |
|
22.4 |
Nitric Oxide |
845 |
|
22.5 |
Nitric/Nitrous Acid |
848 |
|
22.6 |
Inorganic Nitrates |
849 |
|
|
References |
851 |
|
23 |
Ozone |
869 |
|
23.1 |
Introduction |
869 |
|
23.2 |
Background on Exposures and
Health-Related Effects |
873 |
|
23.3 |
Effects of Short-Term Exposures
to Ozone in Humans |
877 |
|
23.4 |
Factors Affecting the
Variability of Responsiveness in Humans |
890 |
|
23.5 |
Studies of Populations Exposed
to Ozone in Ambient Air |
892 |
|
23.6 |
Effects Observed in Studies in
Laboratory Animals |
900 |
|
23.7 |
Determinants of Responsiveness
to Ozone Exposures in Animal Studies |
901 |
|
23.8 |
Effects of Multiple Day and
Ambient Episode Exposures |
908 |
|
23.9 |
Chronic Effects of Ambient Ozone
Exposures |
910 |
|
23.10 |
Ambient Air Quality Standards
and Guidelines |
917 |
|
23.11 |
Summary and Conclusions |
920 |
|
|
Acknowledgment |
922 |
|
|
References |
922 |
|
24 |
Pesticides |
937 |
|
24.1 |
Evolving Patterns of Pesticide
Use |
938 |
|
24.2 |
Export of Hazardous Pesticides |
939 |
|
24.3 |
Exposure to Pesticides |
939 |
|
24.4 |
Epidemiology of Acute Pesticide
Poisoning |
942 |
|
24.5 |
Toxicity of Pesticides |
943 |
|
24.6 |
Pesticides and
Endocrine/Reproductive Toxicity |
949 |
|
24.7 |
Pesticides and Childhood Cancer |
950 |
|
24.8 |
Legislative Framework |
950 |
|
24.9 |
Conclusion: Issues for the Future |
952 |
|
|
References |
953 |
|
25 |
Sulfur Oxides—SO2, H2SO4,
NH4HSO4, and (NH4)2SO4 |
957 |
|
25.1 |
Sources and Exposures |
957 |
|
25.2 |
Health Effects |
961 |
|
25.3 |
Ambient Air Quality Standard and
Guidelines |
989 |
|
|
Acknowledgments |
991 |
|
|
References |
991 |
|
26 |
Microwaves and Electromagnetic
Fields |
1001 |
|
26.1 |
Background |
1003 |
|
26.2 |
Philosophical Approaches |
1004 |
|
26.3 |
Standards Development |
1005 |
|
26.4 |
Current Developments |
1010 |
|
26.5 |
Protective Measures |
1012 |
|
26.6 |
Conclusions |
1014 |
|
26.7 |
Glossary |
1015 |
|
|
References |
1016 |
|
27 |
Sources, Levels and Effects of
Manmade Ionizing Radiation and Radioactivity |
1021 |
|
27.1 |
Source Documents |
1021 |
|
27.2 |
Special Units |
1022 |
|
27.3 |
Sources of Manmade Radioactivity
and Radiation |
1024 |
|
27.4 |
Nuclear Fuel Cycle |
1025 |
|
27.5 |
Discussion of Radiation Doses
from the Nuclear Fuel Cycle |
1038 |
|
27.6 |
Nuclear Weapons Complex |
1043 |
|
27.7 |
Local, Tropospheric, and Global
Fallout |
1048 |
|
27.8 |
Medical Exposures |
1050 |
|
27.9 |
Industrial Uses (Other than the
Nuclear Fuel Cycle) |
1054 |
|
27.10 |
Consumer Products |
1055 |
|
27.11 |
Overview of Potential Health
Impacts of Natural and Manmade Sources of Radioactivity |
1057 |
|
|
References |
1066 |
|
28 |
Noise: Its Effects and Control |
1071 |
|
28.1 |
Definitions of Sound and Noise |
1071 |
|
28.2 |
Noise Exposure is Widespread and
Annoying |
1072 |
|
28.3 |
Effects of Loud Sounds and Noise
on Hearing |
1075 |
|
28.4 |
Noise as a Stressor |
1076 |
|
28.5 |
Noise and Sleep Interference |
1077 |
|
28.6 |
Noise and Mental Health |
1077 |
|
28.7 |
Noise Affects Children’s
Cognitive, Language and Learning Skills |
1078 |
|
28.8 |
Impacts of Low-Frequency Noise |
1079 |
|
28.9 |
Civility, Responsibility, and
Noise |
1079 |
|
28.10 |
Controlling Noise |
1080 |
|
28.11 |
Education and Public Awareness |
1084 |
|
28.12 |
Summary |
1084 |
|
|
References |
1085 |
|
29 |
Radon and Lung Cancer |
1089 |
|
29.1 |
Radon and Lung Cancer |
1089 |
|
29.2 |
Outdoor Radon |
1093 |
|
29.3 |
Indoor Radon |
1097 |
|
29.4 |
The Other Radon, 220Rn,
Thoron |
1100 |
|
29.5 |
Radon Epidemiology in
Underground Mines |
1100 |
|
29.6 |
Residential Epidemiology |
1102 |
|
29.7 |
Lung Dosimetry |
1104 |
|
29.8 |
Lung Cancer Models for Humans |
1107 |
|
29.9 |
Childhood Exposure |
1113 |
|
29.10 |
Animal Studies |
1114 |
|
29.11 |
Smoking and Radon |
1114 |
|
29.12 |
Summary |
1115 |
|
|
References |
1116 |
|
30 |
Ultraviolet Radiation |
1121 |
|
30.1 |
Introduction |
1121 |
|
30.2 |
Pathways for Human Exposure |
1122 |
|
30.3 |
Sources of Ultraviolet Radiation |
1124 |
|
30.4 |
Biological Mechanisms Leading to
Health Effects |
1135 |
|
30.5 |
Ocular Effects |
1135 |
|
30.6 |
Nonmalignant Skin Effects |
1138 |
|
30.7 |
Skin Cancer |
1140 |
|
30.8 |
Malignant Melanoma |
1142 |
|
30.9 |
Immune System Effects |
1146 |
|
30.10 |
Populations at Special Risk:
Ocular Damage |
1147 |
|
30.11 |
Populations at Special Risks:
Skin Effects |
1148 |
|
30.12 |
Applicable Standards and
Exposure Guidelines |
1150 |
|
30.13 |
Techniques for Evaluating Actual
or Potential Exposures |
1152 |
|
30.14 |
Summary |
1156 |
|
|
References |
1157 |
|
|
Index |
1163 |
|
|
|
|