Table
of Contents
|
|
|
|
|
|
Preface |
xi |
|
|
Acknowledgments |
xii |
|
1 |
Introduction to
Lifespan Nutrition |
1 |
|
1.1 |
The Lifespan Approach
to Nutrition |
1 |
|
1.2 |
The Concept of Balance |
2 |
|
1.2.1 |
A Supply and Demand
Model |
2 |
|
1.2.2 |
Overnutrition |
2 |
|
1.2.3 |
Undernutrition |
4 |
|
1.2.3.1 |
Increased Demand |
4 |
|
1.2.3.2 |
The Metabolic Response
to Trauma |
4 |
|
1.2.3.3 |
Compromised Supply and
Deficiency |
6 |
|
1.2.3.4 |
Malnutrition |
7 |
|
1.2.4 |
Classical Balance
Studies |
8 |
|
1.2.5 |
Overall Nutritional
Status |
10 |
|
1.3 |
Nutrition Requirements
Change Across the Lifespan |
10 |
|
1.4 |
Assessment of
Nutritional Status |
11 |
|
1.4.1 |
Anthropometric Measures |
12 |
|
1.4.2 |
Estimating Dietary
Intakes |
12 |
|
1.4.2.1 |
Indirect Measures |
12 |
|
1.4.2.2 |
Direct Measures |
13 |
|
1.4.3 |
Biomarkers of
Nutritional Status |
15 |
|
1.4.4 |
Clinical Examination |
16 |
|
1.5 |
Dietary Reference Values |
16 |
|
1.5.1 |
The UK Dietary
Reference Value System |
17 |
|
1.5.2 |
Dietary Reference
Values in Other Countries |
19 |
|
2 |
Before Life Begins |
23 |
|
2.1 |
Introduction |
23 |
|
2.2 |
Nutrition and Female
Fertility |
24 |
|
2.2.1 |
Determinants of
Fertility and Infertility |
24 |
|
2.2.1.1 |
The Endocrine Control
of Female Reproduction |
24 |
|
2.2.1.2 |
Disordered Reproductive
Cycling |
25 |
|
2.2.1.3 |
Polycystic Ovary
Syndrome |
25 |
|
2.2.1.4 |
Assisted Reproductive
Technologies |
26 |
|
2.2.2 |
Importance of Body Fat |
26 |
|
2.2.3 |
Role of Leptin |
27 |
|
2.2.4 |
Antioxidant Nutrients |
28 |
|
2.2.5 |
Caffeine and Alcohol |
30 |
|
2.3 |
Nutrition and Male
Fertility |
32 |
|
2.3.1 |
Determinants of
Fertility and Infertility |
32 |
|
2.3.2 |
Obesity |
34 |
|
2.3.3 |
Diabetes |
34 |
|
2.3.4 |
Alcohol |
35 |
|
2.3.5 |
Zinc |
35 |
|
2.3.6 |
Antioxidant Nutrients |
36 |
|
2.3.7 |
Selenium |
37 |
|
2.3.8 |
Phytoestrogens and
Environmental Estrogens |
37 |
|
2.3.8.1 |
Phthalates |
37 |
|
2.3.8.2 |
Phytoestrogens |
38 |
|
2.3.8.3 |
Pesticides |
38 |
|
2.4 |
Preparation for
Pregnancy |
39 |
|
2.4.1 |
Why Prepare for
Pregnancy? |
39 |
|
2.4.2 |
Vitamin a and Liver |
40 |
|
2.4.3 |
Folic Acid and Neural
Tube Defects |
41 |
|
2.4.3.1 |
Supplementation with
Folic Acid |
42 |
|
2.4.3.2 |
Fortification with
Folic Acid |
43 |
|
3 |
Pregnancy |
47 |
|
3.1 |
Introduction |
47 |
|
3.2 |
Physiological Demands
of Pregnancy |
48 |
|
3.2.1 |
Maternal Weight Gain
and Body Composition Changes |
49 |
|
3.2.2 |
Blood Volume Expansion
and Cardiovascular Changes |
49 |
|
3.2.3 |
Renal Changes |
50 |
|
3.2.4 |
Respiratory Changes |
50 |
|
3.2.5 |
Gastrointestinal Changes |
51 |
|
3.2.6 |
Metabolic Adaptations |
51 |
|
3.3 |
Nutrient Requirements
in Pregnancy |
52 |
|
3.3.1 |
Energy, Protein, and
Lipids |
52 |
|
3.3.2 |
Micronutrients |
54 |
|
3.3.2.1 |
Iron |
54 |
|
3.3.2.2 |
Calcium and Other
Minerals |
55 |
|
3.3.2.3 |
Vitamin D |
56 |
|
3.4 |
Diet in Relation to
Pregnancy Outcomes |
57 |
|
3.4.1 |
Miscarriage and
Stillbirth |
57 |
|
3.4.2 |
Premature Labor |
58 |
|
3.4.2.1 |
Pre-Pregnancy BMI and
Pregnancy Weight Gain |
58 |
|
3.4.2.2 |
Alcohol and Caffeine
Consumption |
59 |
|
3.4.2.3 |
Oral Health |
60 |
|
3.4.3 |
Hypertensive Disorders
of Pregnancy |
60 |
|
3.4.3.1 |
The Etiology of PE |
60 |
|
3.4.3.2 |
Nutrition-Related
Factors and PE |
62 |
|
3.4.4 |
Abnormal Labor |
62 |
|
3.5 |
Nausea and Vomiting of
Pregnancy (NVP) |
63 |
|
3.5.1 |
NVP as a
Normal Physiological Process |
63 |
|
3.5.2 |
Hyperemesis Gravidarum |
65 |
|
3.6 |
Cravings and Aversions |
66 |
|
3.6.1 |
Pica |
66 |
|
3.7 |
Gastrointestinal
Disturbances in Pregnancy |
67 |
|
3.8 |
High-Risk Pregnancies |
68 |
|
3.8.1 |
Gestational Diabetes |
68 |
|
3.8.2 |
Multiple Pregnancies |
69 |
|
3.8.3 |
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum
Disorders |
71 |
|
4 |
Fetal Nutrition and
Disease in Later Life |
75 |
|
4.1 |
Introduction |
75 |
|
4.2 |
The Developmental
Origins of Adult Disease |
75 |
|
4.2.1 |
The Concept of
Programming |
75 |
|
4.2.2 |
Fetal Programming and
Human Disease |
76 |
|
4.3 |
Evidence Linking
Maternal Nutrition to Disease in Later Life |
79 |
|
4.3.1 |
Epidemiology |
79 |
|
4.3.2 |
Criticisms of the
Programming Hypothesis |
81 |
|
4.3.3 |
Experimental Studies |
82 |
|
4.3.3.1 |
Global Undernutrition |
83 |
|
4.3.3.2 |
Micronutrients |
83 |
|
4.3.3.3 |
Macronutrients |
83 |
|
4.4 |
Mechanistic Basis of
Fetal Programming |
85 |
|
4.4.1 |
Thrifty Phenotypes and
Genotypes |
85 |
|
4.4.2 |
Predictive Adaptive
Responses |
87 |
|
4.4.3 |
Tissue Remodeling |
87 |
|
4.4.4 |
Endocrine Imbalance |
89 |
|
4.4.5 |
Nutrient-Gene
Interactions |
90 |
|
4.4.6 |
Epigenetic Regulation |
92 |
|
4.5 |
Implications of the
Programming Hypothesis |
93 |
|
4.5.1 |
Public Health
Interventions |
93 |
|
4.5.2 |
Trans-Generational
Transmission of Disease Risk |
93 |
|
5 |
Lactation and Infant
Feeding |
99 |
|
5.1 |
Introduction |
99 |
|
5.2 |
The Physiology of
Lactation |
99 |
|
5.2.1 |
Anatomy of the Breast |
99 |
|
5.2.1.1 |
The Nipple and Areola |
99 |
|
5.2.1.2 |
The Lactiferous Ducts |
99 |
|
5.2.1.3 |
The Lactiferous Sinuses |
99 |
|
5.2.1.4 |
The Alveolar Cells |
100 |
|
5.2.1.5 |
The Rooting Reflex |
100 |
|
5.2.2 |
Synthesis of Milk |
101 |
|
5.2.2.1 |
Foremilk and Hindmilk |
101 |
|
5.2.2.2 |
Time of Day |
101 |
|
5.2.2.3 |
Course of Lactation |
102 |
|
5.2.2.4 |
Synthesis of
Carbohydrates |
102 |
|
5.2.2.5 |
Origins of Milk Fats |
102 |
|
5.2.2.6 |
Milk Proteins |
103 |
|
5.2.3 |
Endocrine Control of
Lactation |
104 |
|
5.2.3.1 |
The Breast during
Pregnancy |
104 |
|
5.2.3.2 |
Established Lactation |
104 |
|
5.2.3.3 |
The Breast After Weaning |
105 |
|
5.2.4 |
Maintenance of Lactation |
105 |
|
5.2.5 |
Nutritional Demands of
Lactation |
106 |
|
5.3 |
The Advantages of
Breast-Feeding |
107 |
|
5.3.1 |
Advantages for the
Mother |
107 |
|
5.3.2 |
Advantages for the
Infant |
109 |
|
5.3.3 |
Recommendation to Feed
to 6 Months |
112 |
|
5.4 |
Trends in
Breast-Feeding Behavior |
112 |
|
5.4.1 |
Reasons Why Women do
Not Breast-Feed |
114 |
|
5.4.2 |
Promoting Breast-Feeding |
115 |
|
5.5 |
Situations in Which
Breast-Feeding is Not Advised |
117 |
|
5.6 |
Alternatives to
Breast-Feeding |
118 |
|
5.6.1 |
Cow’s Milk Formulas |
118 |
|
5.6.1.1 |
Milk Stages and
Follow-On Milk |
119 |
|
5.6.2 |
Preterm Formulas |
120 |
|
5.6.3 |
Soy Formulas |
121 |
|
5.6.4 |
Hydrolyzed Protein and
Amino-Acid-Based Formulas |
121 |
|
5.6.5 |
Other Formulas |
121 |
|
6 |
Nutrition and Childhood |
124 |
|
6.1 |
Introduction |
124 |
|
6.2 |
Infancy (Birth to Five) |
124 |
|
6.2.1 |
The Key Developmental
Milestones |
124 |
|
6.2.2 |
Nutrient Requirements |
126 |
|
6.2.2.1 |
Macronutrients and
Energy |
126 |
|
6.2.2.2 |
Micronutrients |
128 |
|
6.2.3 |
Nutrient Intakes and
Infants |
129 |
|
6.2.4 |
Transition to an Adult
Pattern of Food Intake |
129 |
|
6.2.4.1 |
Weaning |
130 |
|
6.2.4.2 |
Nutrition-Related
Problems |
132 |
|
6.2.4.3 |
Barriers to Healthy
Nutrition |
134 |
|
6.3 |
Childhood (Five to
Thirteen) |
139 |
|
6.3.1 |
Nutrient Requirements
of the Older Child |
139 |
|
6.3.2 |
School Meals and the
Promotion of Healthy Eating |
139 |
|
6.3.3 |
The Importance of
Breakfast |
140 |
|
6.4 |
Obesity in Children |
141 |
|
6.4.1 |
The Rising Prevalence
of Obesity |
141 |
|
6.4.2 |
The Causes of Obesity
in Childhood |
142 |
|
6.4.2.1 |
Physical Activity |
143 |
|
6.4.2.2 |
Food Intake |
143 |
|
6.4.2.3 |
Genetic Disorders |
146 |
|
6.4.3 |
The Consequences of
Childhood Obesity |
147 |
|
6.4.3.1 |
Immediate Health
Consequences |
148 |
|
6.4.3.2 |
Tracking of Obesity,
Consequences for the Future |
148 |
|
6.4.4 |
Treatment of Childhood
Obesity |
150 |
|
6.4.5 |
Prevention of Childhood
Obesity |
152 |
|
7 |
Nutrition and
Adolescence |
158 |
|
7.1 |
Introduction |
158 |
|
7.2 |
Physical Development |
158 |
|
7.2.1 |
Growth Rate |
158 |
|
7.2.2 |
Body Composition |
159 |
|
7.2.3 |
Puberty and Sexual
Maturation |
159 |
|
7.2.4 |
Bone Growth |
163 |
|
7.3 |
Psychosocial Development |
165 |
|
7.4 |
Nutritional
Requirements in Adolescence |
166 |
|
7.4.1 |
Macronutrients and
Energy |
166 |
|
7.4.2 |
Micronutrients |
167 |
|
7.5 |
Nutritional Intakes in
Adolescence |
168 |
|
7.5.1 |
Factors that Influence
Food Choice |
169 |
|
7.5.2 |
Food Consumed Out of
the Home |
170 |
|
7.5.3 |
Meal Skipping and
Snacking |
171 |
|
7.6 |
Potential Problems with
Nutrition |
172 |
|
7.6.1 |
Dieting and Weight
Control |
172 |
|
7.6.2 |
The Vegetarian Teenager |
172 |
|
7.6.3 |
Sport and Physical
Activity |
173 |
|
7.6.4 |
Eating Disorders |
174 |
|
7.6.4.1 |
Anorexia Nervosa |
174 |
|
7.6.4.2 |
Bulimia Nervosa |
176 |
|
7.6.5 |
The Pregnant Teenager |
176 |
|
7.6.6 |
Alcohol |
178 |
|
7.6.7 |
Tobacco Smoking |
180 |
|
7.6.8 |
Drug Abuse |
181 |
|
8 |
The Adult Years |
185 |
|
8.1 |
Introduction |
185 |
|
8.2 |
Changing Needs for
Nutrients |
185 |
|
8.3 |
Guidelines for Healthy
Nutrition |
186 |
|
8.4 |
Disease States
Associated with Unhealthy Nutrition and Lifestyle |
189 |
|
8.4.1 |
Obesity |
189 |
|
8.4.1.1 |
Classification of
Overweight and Obesity |
189 |
|
8.4.1.2 |
Prevalence and Trends
in Obesity |
189 |
|
8.4.1.3 |
Causes of Obesity in
Adulthood |
190 |
|
8.4.1.4 |
Treatment of Obesity |
191 |
|
8.4.2 |
Type 2 Diabetes |
192 |
|
8.4.3 |
The Metabolic Syndrome |
195 |
|
8.4.4 |
Cardiovascular Disease |
196 |
|
8.4.4.1 |
What is Cardiovascular
Disease? |
196 |
|
8.4.4.2 |
Risk Factors for
Cardiovascular Disease |
199 |
|
8.4.4.3 |
Nutrition-Related
Factors and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease |
199 |
|
8.4.5 |
Cancer |
207 |
|
8.4.5.1 |
What is Cancer? |
207 |
|
8.4.5.2 |
Diet is the Main
Determinant of Cancer Risk |
208 |
|
8.4.5.3 |
Nutritional
Epidemiology and Cancer |
209 |
|
8.4.5.4 |
Dietary Factors that
may Promote Cancer |
213 |
|
8.4.5.5 |
Dietary Factors that
may Reduce Cancer Risk |
217 |
|
9 |
Nutrition, Aging, and
the Elderly |
227 |
|
9.1 |
Introduction |
227 |
|
9.2 |
The Aging Population |
227 |
|
9.3 |
The Aging Process |
228 |
|
9.3.1 |
Impact on Physiological
Systems |
228 |
|
9.3.2 |
Mechanisms of Cellular
Senescence |
228 |
|
9.3.2.1 |
Oxidative Senescence |
230 |
|
9.3.2.2 |
The Role of p53
Activation |
231 |
|
9.3.2.3 |
Telomere Shortening |
231 |
|
9.3.2.4 |
The INK4a/ARF Axis |
231 |
|
9.3.3 |
Nutritional Modulation
of the Aging Process |
232 |
|
9.3.3.1 |
Caloric Restriction and
Lifespan |
232 |
|
9.3.3.2 |
Fetal Programming of
Lifespan |
233 |
|
9.3.3.3 |
Supplementary
Antioxidants |
233 |
|
9.4 |
Nutrient Requirements
of the Elderly |
234 |
|
9.4.1 |
Macronutrients and
Energy |
234 |
|
9.4.2 |
Micronutrients |
234 |
|
9.4.3 |
Specific Guidelines for
the Elderly |
234 |
|
9.5 |
Barriers to Healthy
Nutrition in the Elderly |
235 |
|
9.5.1 |
Malnutrition and the
Elderly |
235 |
|
9.5.2 |
Poverty |
236 |
|
9.5.3 |
Social Isolation |
237 |
|
9.5.4 |
Education |
237 |
|
9.5.5 |
Physical Changes |
238 |
|
9.5.6 |
Combating Malnutrition
in the Elderly |
238 |
|
9.6 |
Common
Nutrition-Related Health Problems |
239 |
|
9.6.1 |
Bone Disorders |
239 |
|
9.6.1.1 |
Bone Mineralization and
Remodeling |
239 |
|
9.6.1.2 |
Osteoporosis Pathology
and Prevalence |
241 |
|
9.6.1.3 |
Risk Factors for
Osteoporosis |
241 |
|
9.6.1.4 |
Dietary Interventions
for Osteoporosis Prevention |
242 |
|
9.6.1.5 |
Paget’s
Disease of Bone |
244 |
|
9.6.2 |
Immunity and Infection |
244 |
|
9.6.3 |
Digestive Tract
Disorders |
245 |
|
9.6.3.1 |
Mouth and Esophagus |
245 |
|
9.6.3.2 |
Stomach |
246 |
|
9.6.3.3 |
Small Intestine |
246 |
|
9.6.3.4 |
Large Intestine |
246 |
|
9.6.4 |
Anemia |
247 |
|
9.6.4.1 |
Iron Deficiency Anemia |
248 |
|
9.6.4.2 |
Vitamin B12 Deficiency |
248 |
|
9.6.4.3 |
Folic Acid Deficiency |
249 |
|
9.6.4.4 |
Cognitive Impairment
and Anemia |
249 |
|
10 |
Personalized Nutrition |
254 |
|
10.1 |
Introduction |
254 |
|
10.2 |
The Individual Response
to Variation in Food Intake |
255 |
|
10.2.1 |
Genes may Determine
Food Intake |
256 |
|
10.2.1.1 |
Regulation of Food
Intake |
257 |
|
10.2.1.2 |
Regulation of
Macronutrient Intake |
257 |
|
10.2.1.3 |
Regulation of Taste |
257 |
|
10.2.2 |
Genes may Determine
Nutrient Bioavailability and Utilization |
258 |
|
10.2.3 |
Nutritional Regulation
of Gene Expression |
258 |
|
10.3 |
Identifying Disease
Risk Biomarkers |
260 |
|
10.3.1 |
Nutrigenomics |
260 |
|
10.3.2 |
Proteomics |
261 |
|
10.3.3 |
Metabolomics |
263 |
|
10.4 |
Genetic Influences on
Response to Nutrients and Disease Risk |
263 |
|
10.4.1 |
Obesity |
263 |
|
10.4.2 |
Cardiovascular Disease |
264 |
|
10.4.3 |
Cancer |
265 |
|
10.5 |
Nutrient-Gene
Interactions—A Lifespan Approach |
266 |
|
10.6 |
The Future of
Nutritional Advice? |
268 |
|
|
Glossary of Terms |
271 |
|
|
Index |
291 |
|
|
|
|