Preface

6

Learning Objectives

8

HANDLING DATA

1

Types of Data

14

2

Data Entry

16

3

Error Checking and Outliers

18

4

Displaying Data Diagrammatically

20

5

Describing Data: The ‘Average’

22

6

Describing Data: The ‘Spread’

24

7

Theoretical Distributions: The Normal Distribution

26

8

Theoretical Distributions: Other Distributions

28

9

Transformations

30

SAMPLING AND ESTIMATION

10

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

32

11

Confidence Intervals

34

STUDY DESIGN

12

Study Design I

36

13

Study Design II

38

14

Clinical Trials

40

15

Cohort Studies

44

16

Case–Control Studies

47

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

17

Hypothesis Testing

50

18

Errors in Hypothesis Testing

52

BASIC TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYSING DATA

Numerical Data

19

Numerical Data: A Single Group

54

20

Numerical Data: Two Related Groups

57

21

Numerical Data: Two Unrelated Groups

60

22

Numerical Data: More Than Two Groups

63

Categorical Data

23

Categorical Data: A Single Proportion

66

24

Categorical Data: Two Proportions

69

25

Categorical Data: More Than Two Categories

72

Regression and Correlation

26

Correlation

75

27

The Theory of Linear Regression

78

28

Performing a Linear Regression Analysis

80

29

Multiple Linear Regression

84

30

Binary Outcomes and Logistic Regression

88

31

Rates and Poisson Regression

92

32

Generalized Linear Models

96

33

Explanatory Variables in Statistical Models

98

Important Considerations

34

Bias and Confounding

102

35

Checking Assumptions

106

36

Sample Size Calculations

108

37

Presenting Results

112

Additional Chapters

38

Diagnostic Tools

115

39

Assessing Agreement

118

40

Evidence-Based Medicine

122

41

Methods for Clustered Data

124

42

Regression Methods for Clustered Data

127

43

Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis

130

44

Survival Analysis

133

45

Bayesian Methods

136

46

Developing Prognostic Scores

138

APPENDICES

A

Statistical Tables

142

B

Altman’s Nomogram for Sample Size Calculations

149

C

Typical Computer Output

150

D

Glossary of Terms

163

Index

174