Preface

xv

Acknowledgments

xvii

About the Authors

xix

Chapter 1

Energy

1

Definition

1

Energy Need

3

Energy Retained

10

Energetic Efficiency

12

Utilizable Energy

13

Thermogenesis

15

Abnormal Energy Slates

16

Starvation and Undernutrition

16

Protein-Energy Malnutrition

18

Trauma and Energy Needs

19

Obesity

21

Body Composition

21

Set Point Theory in Body Weight Regulation

32

Morbidity of Severely Obese People

33

Treatment of Obesity

34

Drugs for the Treatment of Obesity

35

References

37

Chapter 2

Regulation of Food Intake

41

Psychological Aspects of Food Intake

41

Physiological Aspects of Food Intake

43

Sensory Perception of Food

43

Appearance

44

Texture

44

Smell (Olfaction) and Taste (Gustation)

45

Neuronal Signals for Hunger and Satiety

49

Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia

55

Abnormal Appetite: Pica

57

References

58

Chapter 3

Nutritional Biochemistry

61

Glycolysis

61

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

64

Interconversion of Dietary Sugars

66

Fructose

66

Galactose

67

Mannose

68

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

69

Gluconeogenesis

73

Cori and Alanine Cycles

75

Oxidative Phosphorylation

78

Mitochondrial Structure and Function

78

Respiration and the Citric Acid Cycle

79

Respiratory Chain

81

ATP Synthesis

82

Uncoupling Proteins

82

Metabolic Control: Oxidative Phosphorylation

84

Oxidative Phosphorylation

85

Fatty Acid Synthesis

87

Fatty Acid Elongation

90

Fatty Acid Desaturation

91

Fatly Acid Esterification

92

Fatty Acid Oxidation

94

Cholesterol Synthesis

98

Amino Acid Catabolism

100

Amino Acid Derivatives

106

Creatine Phosphate

106

Choline

107

Polyamines

108

References

108

Chapter 4

Cell Cycle, Life Cycle

111

Cell Structure and Function

111

Receptors

111

Signal Systems

115

Cell Differentiation

116

Apoptosis

119

Life Cycle

123

Growth and Development

124

Aging

125

References

131

Chapter 5

Nutrigenomics and Epigenetics

133

Gene Expression

133

Gene Structure

134

Mutations or Polymorphisms

135

Synthesis of Purines and Pyrimidines

138

Transcription

138

Epigenetic Control of Chromatin Structure and Function

146

Genetic Diseases of Interest to Nutrition

150

References

155

Chapter 6

Protein

157

Amino Acids

157

Chemistry

157

Stereochemistry

161

Acid-Based Properties

161

Reactions

162

Amino Acid Derivatives

164

Creatine Phosphate

164

Choline

165

Polyamines

165

Peptides

165

Protein Structure

166

Protein Denaturation

167

Classification of Proteins

167

Classification by Solubility and Prosthetic Groups

167

Glycoproteins

168

Lipoproteins

169

Nucleoproteins

169

Other Conjugated Proteins

169

Classification by Function

169

Classification by Nutritive Value

169

Protein Analysis

172

Biological Value of Dietary Protein (BV)

172

Protein Use

177

Digestion

177

Absorption

179

Metabolism

181

Hormones: Regulators of Protein Metabolism

181

Protein Turnover

185

Protein Degradation

185

Functions of Proteins

187

Proteins as Enzymes

188

Proteins as Carriers and Receptors

189

Proteins as Regulators of Water Balance

189

Proteins as Biological Buffers

190

Proteins as Structural Elements and Structural Units

192

Proteins as Lubricants

193

Proteins in the Immune System

194

Proteins as Signaling Molecules

194

Protein Intake Recommendations

194

Age

195

Environmental Temperature

196

Previous Diet

196

Physical Activity

197

Protein Deficiency

198

Kwashiorkor

199

Marasmus

199

Protein and Amino Acid Interactions with Other Nutrients

200

Vegetarian Diets

202

Renal Disease

203

Integration of the Metabolic Features of Protein Nutrition

203

References

206

Chapter 7

Carbohydrates

209

Classification

209

Structure and Nomenclature

209

Monosaceharides

209

Stereoisomeric Forms

210

Anoineric Forms

213

Oligosaccharides

214

Disaccharides

214

Polysaccharides

216

Storage Polysaccharides

216

Structural Polysaccharides

217

Mucopolysaccharides

218

Sources of Carbohydrate

218

Digestion and Absorption

220

Metabolism

223

Glucose Homeostasis

224

Abnormalities in the Regulation of Glucose Homeostasis: Diabetes Mellitus

226

Prevalence of Diabetes

227

The Glucose Tolerance Test

228

Definition of Different Types of Diabetes Based on Management

229

Genetics and Diabetes

230

Type 1 Diabetes (Autoimmune Diabetes)

231

Pancreatic Islet [β Cell Failure

232

Autoimmune Disease

232

Diabetes Secondary to Viral Infections

234

Insulin Release

234

Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY)

235

Genetic Errors in Insulin Structure

236

Mitochondria! Diabetes

237

Peripheral Insulin Resistance

237

Animal Models for Humans with Type 2 Diabetes

239

Population Surveys Relating Diet to Diabetes

240

Prospective Studies Linking Food Intake to a Reduction in Type 2 Diabetes

242

Dietary Intervention in Diabetes

242

Other Intervention Studies

244

Overall Management of Both Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

245

Other Health Concerns in Carbohydrate Nutrition

246

Fiber

246

Ethanol

247

Carbohydrate Needs

249

References

250

Chapter 8

Lipids

257

Classification

257

Structure and Nomenclature

258

Simple Lipids

258

Fatty Acids

258

Triacyglycerols (Fats or Triglycerides)

260

Sources of Lipids

261

Digestion and Absorption

262

Transport

266

Endogenous Lipid Transport

269

Genetic Basis for Lipoproteinemia

270

Nutrient-Gene Interactions in Lipid Transport

276

Function

277

Essential Fatty Acids

278

Eicosanoid Synthesis

281

Fatty Acid Autooxidation

285

Nutrition, Inflammation, and Chronic Disease

290

The Injury Cycle

290

Relationship of Inflammation to Chronic Disease

293

Aging and Free Radicals

295

Marine Oils and Health Concerns

295

Lipids and Membrane Function

297

Membrane Phospholipid Composition

298

Disease Effects on Membrane Lipids

298

Hormonal Effects on Membrane Lipids

299

Age Effects on Membrane Lipids

300

Membrane Function

300

Cancer and Dietary Fat

301

Other Diseases

302

References

302

Chapter 9

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

309

Vitamin A

309

Structure and Nomenclature

309

Chemical Properties

314

Biopotency

315

Sources

316

Metabolism of Vitamin A

316

Functions

319

Hypervitaminosis A

325

Vitamin Degradation and Excretion

325

Need

325

Vitamin D

326

Structure and Nomenclature

327

Physical/Chemical Properties

329

Biopotency

330

Methods of Assay

330

International Units (IU)

332

Metabolism

333

Absorption

333

Transport

333

Metabolism

334

Function

336

Regulation of Serum Calcium Levels

337

Vitamin D Deficiency

339

Hypervitaminus is ID

340

Need

340

Vitamin E

341

Structure and Nomenclature

341

International Units and Methods of Analysis

342

Chemical and Physical Properties

343

Sources

344

Metabolism

344

Absorption and Transport

344

Intracellular Transport and Storage

345

Catabolism and Excretion

346

Function

347

Hypervitaminosis E

348

Deficiency

348

Need

348

Vitamin K

348

Structure and Nomenclature

349

Biopotency

350

Chemical and Physical Properties

350

Chemical Assays

351

Bioassays

351

Biosynthesis

352

Antagonists, Antivitamins

352

Absorption

353

Metabolism and Function

354

Deficiency

358

Sources

359

Need

359

References

359

Chapter 10

Water-Soluble Vitamins

363

Ascorbic Acid

363

Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties

363

Sources

367

Absorption and Metabolism

367

Distribution

367

Function

368

Deficiency (Scurvy)

369

Toxicity

370

Need

370

Thiamin

370

Structure

371

Thiamin Antagonists

372

Assays for Thiamin

373

Sources

373

Absorption and Metabolism

373

Biological Function

374

Deficiency

377

Need

379

Toxicity

379

Riboflavin

380

Structure, Chemical, and Physical Properties

380

Sources

381

Assay

381

Absorption and Metabolism

381

Function

383

Deficiency

385

Need

386

Niacin, Nicotinic Acid

386

Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties

387

Sources

387

Absorption and Metabolism

387

Function

388

Deficiency

390

Need

390

Pyridoxine

390

Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties

391

Sources

392

Absorption and Metabolism

392

Function

392

Deficiency

396

Need

396

Pantothenic Acid

396

Structure, Chemical, and Physical Properties

397

Sources

397

Absorption and Metabolism

397

Function

397

Deficiency Symptoms

399

Need

399

Biotin

400

Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties

401

Sources

403

Absorption and Metabolism

403

Function

403

Deficiency

403

Need

405

Folic Acid

405

Structure, Chemical, and Physical Properties

405

Sources

406

Absorption and Metabolism

406

Function

406

Deficiency

407

Need

410

Vitamin B₁₂

411

Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties

411

Absorption and Metabolism

412

Function

412

Deficiency

414

Need

415

Carnitine

415

Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties

415

Sources

416

Absorption and Metabolism

416

Function

416

Deficiency

416

Choline

417

Structure;, Physical, and Chemical Properties

417

Sources

418

Absorption and Metabolism

419

Function

419

Deficiency

420

Need

421

Inositol

421

Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties

421

Absorption and Metabolism

421

Function

422

Deficiency

425

Need

426

Other Compounds that May or May not be Vitamins

426

Pyrroloquinoline Quinone

426

Ubiquinone

426

Orotic Acid

427

Para Amino Benzoic Acid (PABA)

427

Lipoic Acid

427

BiofVavinoids

427

Pseudovilamins

427

References

428

Chapter 11

Macrominerals

433

Sodium

433

Regulation of Serum Sodium

434

Function

437

Potassium

440

Chloride

440

Function

441

Calcium

442

Sources

442

Food Mixtures

442

Bioavailability

443

Apparent Absorption

445

Physiological Status

445

Mechanisms of Absorption

446

Calcium Transport, Blood Calcium Regulation

448

Function

449

Cell Signaling

451

Calcium and Cell Death

453

Muscle Contraction

454

Calcium Deficiency

455

Need

455

Phosphorus

456

Function

457

Magnesium

459

Absorption, Metabolism, Excretion

459

Function

459

Deficiency

461

Need

462

References

462

Chapter 12

Trace Minerals

465

Essential Microminerals

465

Trace Mineral Toxicity

468

Antagonisms and Interactions Among Trace Minerals

469

Iron

470

Absorption, Excretion, Metabolism

471

Iron-Containing Materials in the Body

473

Iron Needs

474

Iron Deficiency (Anemia)

475

Pharmacological Treatment of Iron Deficiency

475

Toxicology

476

Zinc

476

Absorption, Metabolism, Excretion

477

Function

477

Storage

480

Zinc Interactions

480

Deficiency

481

Status

482

Copper

482

Absorption, Metabolism, Excretion

483

Function

483

Deficiency

484

Abnormal Copper Status

485

Selenium

486

Absorption, Excretion, Metabolism

486

Function

487

Selenium Mineral Interactions

491

Deficiency

492

Toxicity

492

Iodine (Iodide)

493

Absorption, Metabolism, Excretion

493

Deficiency

494