Table
of Contents
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1 |
Introduction to Human Development |
1 |
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Importance of and Advances in
Embryology |
1 |
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Descriptive Terms |
5 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
5 |
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2 |
Human Reproduction |
7 |
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Reproductive Organs |
7 |
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Female Reproductive Organs |
7 |
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Male Reproductive Organs |
10 |
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Gametogenesis |
10 |
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Meiosis |
10 |
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Spermatogenesis |
11 |
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Oogenesis |
14 |
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Comparison of Male and Female Gametes |
14 |
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Female Reproductive Cycles |
14 |
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Ovarian Cycle |
14 |
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Menstrual Cycle |
17 |
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Transportation of Gametes |
19 |
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Oocyte Transport |
19 |
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Sperm Transport |
19 |
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Maturation of Sperms |
20 |
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Viability of Oocytes and Sperms |
20 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
20 |
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3 |
First Week of Development |
21 |
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Fertilization |
21 |
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Phases of Fertilization |
21 |
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Results of Fertilization |
23 |
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Cleavage of Zygote |
24 |
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Formation of Blastocyst |
24 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
27 |
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4 |
Second Week of Development |
29 |
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Formation of Amniotic Cavity and
Embryonic Disc |
30 |
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Development of Chorionic Sac |
32 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
33 |
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5 |
Third Week of Development |
35 |
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Gastrulation: Formation of Germ Layers |
35 |
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Primitive Streak |
36 |
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Notochordal Process and
Notochord |
36 |
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Neurulation: Formation of the Neural Tube |
38 |
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Neural Plate and Neural Tube |
38 |
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Neural Crest Formation |
39 |
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Development of Somites |
39 |
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Development of Intraembryonic Coelom |
40 |
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Early Development of Cardiovascular
System |
40 |
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Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis |
43 |
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Development of Chorionic Villi |
45 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
47 |
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6 |
Development During Weeks Four to Eight |
49 |
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Folding of Embryo |
49 |
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Head and Tail Folds |
51 |
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Lateral Folds |
51 |
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Germ Layer Derivatives |
51 |
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Control of Embryonic Development |
51 |
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Estimation of Embryonic Age |
54 |
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Highlights of Development during Weeks
Four to Eight |
54 |
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Fourth Week |
54 |
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Fifth Week |
56 |
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Sixth Week |
58 |
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Seventh Week |
58 |
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Eighth Week |
58 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
61 |
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7 |
Fetal Period: The Ninth Week to Birth |
63 |
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Highlights of Fetal Period |
63 |
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Nine to Twelve Weeks |
64 |
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Thirteen to Sixteen Weeks |
65 |
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Seventeen to Twenty Weeks |
65 |
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Twenty-One to Twenty-Five Weeks |
65 |
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Twenty-Six to Twenty-Nine Weeks |
67 |
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Thirty to Thirty-Eight Weeks |
67 |
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Expected Date of Delivery |
67 |
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Factors Influencing Fetal Growth |
67 |
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Procedures for Assessing Fetal Status |
68 |
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Ultrasonography |
68 |
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Diagnostic Amniocentesis |
69 |
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Chorionic Villus Sampling |
69 |
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Ceil Cultures |
69 |
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Percutaneous Umbilical Cord
Blood Sampling |
69 |
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
69 |
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Fetal Monitoring |
69 |
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Alpha Fetoprotein Assay |
70 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
70 |
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8 |
Placenta and Fetal Membranes |
71 |
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Placenta |
71 |
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Decidua |
72 |
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Development of Placenta |
72 |
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Fetomaternal Junction |
72 |
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Intervillous Space |
72 |
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Amniochorionic Membrane |
74 |
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Placental Circulation |
74 |
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Parturition |
79 |
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Stages of Labor |
79 |
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Placenta and Fetal Membranes after Birth |
80 |
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Umbilical Cord |
82 |
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Amnion and Amniotic Fluid |
82 |
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Significance of Amniotic Fluid |
84 |
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Umbilical Vesicle |
84 |
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Significance of Umbilical Vesicle |
84 |
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Allantots |
85 |
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Fetal Membranes in Multiple Pregnancies |
85 |
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Twins and Fetal Membranes |
85 |
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Other Types of Multiple Births |
87 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
88 |
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9 |
Body Cavities, Mesenteries, and Diaphragm |
89 |
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Embryonic Body Cavity |
89 |
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Mesenteries |
90 |
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Division of Embryonic Body Cavity |
90 |
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Development of Diaphragm |
91 |
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Septum Transversum |
93 |
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Pleuroperitoneal Membranes |
93 |
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Dorsal Mesentery of Esophagus |
93 |
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Muscular Ingrowth
from Laterai
Body Walls |
93 |
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Positional Changes and Innervation of Diaphragm |
94 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
97 |
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10 |
Pharyngeal Apparatus |
99 |
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Pharyngeal Arches |
99 |
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Pharyngeal Arch Components |
100 |
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Pharyngeal Pouches |
105 |
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Derivatives of Pharyngeal Pouches |
105 |
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Pharyngeal Grooves |
107 |
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Pharyngeal Membranes |
110 |
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Development of Thyroid Gland |
110 |
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Development of Tongue |
112 |
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Papillae and Taste Buds of Tongue |
113 |
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Nerve Supply of Tongue |
113 |
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Development of Salivary Glands |
114 |
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Development of Face |
114 |
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Development of Nasal Cavities |
118 |
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Paranasal Sinuses |
119 |
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Development of Palate |
120 |
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Primary Palate |
120 |
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Secondary Palate |
120 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
125 |
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11 |
Respiratory System |
127 |
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Development of Larynx |
129 |
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Development of Trachea |
130 |
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Development of Bronchi and Lungs |
130 |
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Maturation of Lungs |
131 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
135 |
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12 |
Alimentary System |
137 |
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Foregut |
137 |
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Development of Esophagus |
138 |
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Development of Stomach |
138 |
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Development of Duodenum |
141 |
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Development of Liver and Biliary Apparatus |
142 |
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Development of Pancreas |
144 |
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Development of Spleen |
146 |
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Midgut |
146 |
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Rotation of Midgut
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146 |
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Cecum and Appendix |
149 |
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Hindgut |
149 |
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Cloaca |
154 |
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Anal Canal |
155 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
159 |
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13 |
Urogenital System |
161 |
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Development of Urinary System |
161 |
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Development of Kidneys and Ureters |
161 |
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Positional Changes of Kidneys |
163 |
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Changes in Blood Supply of Kidneys |
163 |
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Development of Urinary Bladder |
167 |
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Development of Urethra |
169 |
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Development of Suprarenal Glands |
169 |
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Development of Genital System |
171 |
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Development of Gonads |
171 |
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Development of Genital Ducts |
176 |
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Development of External Genitalia |
177 |
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Development of inguinal Canals |
184 |
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Descent of Testes |
187 |
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Descent of Ovaries |
187 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
188 |
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14 |
Cardiovascular
System |
189 |
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Early Development of the Heart and Bloodvessels |
190 |
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Development of Embryonic Veins Associated with the Heart |
190 |
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Pharyngeal Arch Arteries and Other Branches of Dorsal Aorta |
191 |
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Fate of Vitelline
and Umbilical Arteries |
191 |
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Later Development of the Heart |
191 |
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Circulation through Primordial Heart |
194 |
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Partitioning of Primordial Heart |
196 |
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Changes in Sinus Venosus |
200 |
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Primordial Pulmonary Vein and Formation of Left Atrium |
202 |
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Partitioning of Primordial Ventricle |
202 |
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Partitioning of Bulbus Cordis and Truncus Arteriosus |
203 |
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Development of Cardiac Valves |
203 |
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Conducting System of Heart |
205 |
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Birth Defects of the Heart and Great
Vessels |
205 |
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Derivatives of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries |
211 |
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Derivatives of First Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries |
211 |
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Derivatives of Second Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries |
211 |
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Derivatives of Third Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries |
211 |
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Derivatives of Fourth Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries |
212 |
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Fate of Fifth Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries |
212 |
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Derivatives of Sixth Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries |
212 |
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Pharyngeal Arch Artery Anomalies |
213 |
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Fetal and Neonatal Circulation |
215 |
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Fetal Circulation |
215 |
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Transitional Neonatal Circulation |
216 |
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Derivatives of Fetal Vascular Structures |
217 |
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Development of the Lymphatic System |
220 |
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Development of Lymph Nodes |
222 |
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Development of Spleen and Tonsils |
222 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
222 |
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15 |
Musculoskeletal
System |
223 |
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Skeletal System |
223 |
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Development of Cartilage and Bone |
225 |
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Histogenesis of Cartilage |
225 |
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Htstogenesis of Bone |
225 |
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Development of Joints |
227 |
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Fibrous Joints |
227 |
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Cartilaginous Joints |
227 |
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Synovial Joints |
227 |
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Development of Axial Skeleton |
227 |
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Development of Vertebral Column |
227 |
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Cartilaginous Stage of Vertebral Development |
229 |
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Bony Stage of Vertebral Development |
229 |
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Development of Ribs |
230 |
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Development of Sternum |
230 |
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Development of Cranium |
230 |
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Development of Appendicular Skeleton |
233 |
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Muscular System |
236 |
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Development of Skeletal Muscle |
236 |
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Development of Smooth Muscle |
238 |
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Development of Cardiac Muscle |
238 |
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Development of Limbs |
239 |
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Early Stages of Limb Development |
239 |
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Final Stages of Limb Development |
240 |
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Cutaneous Innervation of Limbs |
241 |
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Blood Supply to Limbs |
242 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
242 |
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16 |
Nervous
System |
247 |
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Origin of Nervous System |
247 |
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Development of Spinal Cord |
250 |
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Development of Spinal Ganglia |
252 |
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Development of Spinal Meninges |
252 |
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Positional Changes of Spinal Cord |
253 |
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Myelination of Nerve Fibers |
253 |
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Birth Defects of Spinal Cord |
253 |
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Development of Brain |
254 |
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Brain Flexures |
254 |
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Hindbrain |
255 |
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Myelencephalon |
255 |
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Metencephalon |
256 |
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Choroid Plexuses and Cerebrospinal Fluid |
256 |
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Midbrain |
257 |
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Forebrain |
257 |
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Congenital Anomalies of Brain |
261 |
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Development of Peripheral Nervous
System |
265 |
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Spinal Nerves |
266 |
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Crania! Nerves |
266 |
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Development of Autonomic Nervous System |
269 |
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Sympathetic Nervous System |
269 |
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Parasympathetic Nervous System |
269 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
270 |
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17 |
Eyes and
Ears |
271 |
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Development of Eyes and Related
Structures |
271 |
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Development of Retina |
273 |
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Development of Choroid
and Sclera |
276 |
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Development of Ciliary
Body |
276 |
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Development of Iris |
276 |
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Development of Lens |
276 |
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Development of Aqueous Chambers |
277 |
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Development of Cornea |
277 |
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Development of Eyelids |
278 |
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Development of Lacrimal
Glands |
278 |
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Development of Ears |
278 |
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Development of Internal Ears |
278 |
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Development of Middle Ears |
280 |
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Development of External Ears |
280 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
282 |
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18 |
Integumentary System |
283 |
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Development of Skin |
283 |
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Epidermis |
283 |
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Dermis |
284 |
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Glands of Skin |
285 |
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Development of Hairs |
286 |
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Development of Nails |
286 |
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Development of Mammary Glands |
287 |
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Development of Teeth |
288 |
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Bud Stage of Tooth Development |
288 |
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Cap Stage of Tooth Development |
289 |
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289 |
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Tooth Eruption |
289 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
293 |
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19 |
Human Birth
Defects |
295 |
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Teratology: Study of Abnormal
Development |
295 |
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Birth Defects Caused by Genetic Factors |
296 |
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Numerical Chromosomal Abnormalities |
296 |
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Structural Chromosomal Abnormalities |
300 |
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Birth Defects Caused by Mutant Genes |
302 |
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Birth Defects Caused by Environmental
Factors |
303 |
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Principles of Teratogenesis |
303 |
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Human Teratogens |
306 |
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Environmental Chemicals as Teratogens |
309 |
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Infectious Agents as Teratogens |
309 |
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Radiation as a Teratogen |
310 |
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Maternal Factors as Teratogens |
311 |
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Mechanical Factors as Teratogens |
311 |
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Birth Defects Caused by Multifactorial
Inheritance |
311 |
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Clinically Oriented Questions |
311 |
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20 |
The
Cellular and Molecular Basis of Development |
313 |
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Intercellular Communication |
314 |
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Morphogens |
314 |
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Retinoic Acid |
314 |
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Transforming Growth Factor b/Bone Morphogenetic Protein |
315 |
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Hedgehog |
315 |
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Wnt/b-Catenin
Pathway |
316 |
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Receptor Tyrosine Kinases |
316 |
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Common Features |
316 |
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Regulation of Angiogenesis by Receptor Tyrosine Kinases |
317 |
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Notch-Delta Pathway |
318 |
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Transcription Factors |
318 |
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Hox/Homeobox Proteins |
318 |
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Pax Genes |
319 |
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Basic Helix-Loop-Helix (bHLH) Transcription Factors |
319 |
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Epigenetics |
319 |
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DNA Methylation |
319 |
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Acetylation |
320 |
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Summary of Common Signaling Pathways
Used during Development |
320 |
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References and Suggested |
321 |
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Answers to Clinically Oriented Questions |
325 |
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Index |
335 |
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