9781581102987

Table of Contents


Introduction	Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Health: An Office-Based Approach	xxix
I	FEEDING THE INFANT
1	Infant Nutrition and Development of Gastrointestinal Function	3
	Development of Gastrointestinal Function	3
	Development of the Gastrointestinal Tract	3
	Developmental Disorders	4
	Development of the Intestinal Epithelium	5
	Infant Nutrient Assimilation	6
	Dietary Fats	7
	Dietary Carbohydrates	10
	Dietary Protein	12
	Vitamins and Minerals	15
	Human Milk	16
	Intestinal Microbiota in the Infant	19
2	Breastfeeding	29
	Introduction	29
	Rates of Breastfeeding in the United States	29
	The Evidence to Support Breastfeeding	31
	Contraindications to Breastfeeding	39
	The Management of Breastfeeding	40
	Conclusion	52
3	Formula Feeding of Term Infants	61
	General Considerations	61
	Rates of Breastfeeding and Formula Feeding	61
	Indications for the Use of Infant Formula	62
	History of Infant Formula Development	62
	Rationale for Development of Current Infant Formulas	63
	Available Forms of Infant Formula	64
	Infant Formula Labels	64
	Safe Preparation of Infant Formula	65
	Safe Handling and Storage of Infant Formula	67
	Guidelines for Length of Exclusive Formula Feeding and Supplementation with Solid Foods	68
	Intact Cow Milk Protein-Based Formulas	69
	Soy Formulas	72
	Protein Hydrolysate Formulas	74
	Other Formulas	76
	Cow Milk	76
4	Nutritional Needs of the Preterm Infant	79
	Energy Requirements	83
	Protein Amount and Type	84
	Fats	84
	Carbohydrates	85
	Minerals	86
	Trace Minerals	88
	Water-Soluble Vitamins	88
	Fat-Soluble Vitamins	91
	Energy Density and Water Requirements	93
	Human Milk	94
	Facilitating Lactation and Human Milk Handling	95
	Commercial Formulas for Preterm Infants	96
	Methods of Enteral Feeding	97
	Parenteral Nutrition	99
	Feeding the Preterm Infant After Discharge	102
	Conclusion	104
5	Complementary Feeding	113
	Introduction	113
	Infant Growth and Development Factors	113
	Timing of Complementary Foods Introduction: Review of the Evidence on Related Health Outcomes	122
	Conclusions: Lack of Evidence to Support or Refute Changing Current Recommendations	128
II	FEEDING THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
6	Feeding the Child	145
	Toddlerhood	145
	Preschoolers	147
	School-Aged Children	148
	Eating Patterns and Nutrient Needs	149
	Parenting and the Feeding Relationship	159
	Special Topics	161
	The Role of Anticipatory Guidance in Promoting Healthy Eating Behaviors	165
7	Adolescent Nutrition	175
	Factors Influencing Nutritional Needs of Adolescents	175
	Nutrition Concerns During Adolescence	176
	Nutritional Considerations During Pregnancy	178
	Nutritional Concerns for Adolescent Bone Health	179
8	Cultural Considerations in Feeding Children	183
	Introduction	183
	Importance of Addressing Cultural Food Practices	184
	Understanding Cultural Food Practices: Challenges for Health Care Professionals	184
	Infant Feeding: Foundation of Eating Behavior	185
	Young Child Feeding	190
	Specific Cultural Food Beliefs	193
	Sources of Advice on Child Feeding	194
9	Nutritional Aspects of Vegetarian Diets	201
	Trends	203
	Additional Implications of Vegetarianism	205
	Nutrient Intake Guidelines	210
	Whole Foods Concept	210
	Conclusion	219
10	Sports Nutrition	225
	Introduction	225
	Fueling the Workout	225
	Building Blocks for Recovery	230
	Micronutrients	233
	Determination of Optimal Body Weight in Young Athletes	235
	Vegetarian Athletes	239
	Dietary Supplements/Ergogenic Aids	239
11	Nutrition During Pregnancy	249
	Assessment of Nutritional Status	249
	Guidelines for Gestational Weight Gain	250
	Nutrient Needs During Pregnancy	253
	Vitamins	261
	Alcohol	264
	Caffeine	264
	Metabolic Disorders	264
	Additional Dietary and Lifestyle Concerns	266
12	Fast Foods, Organic Foods, Fad Diets	275
	Fast Food	275
	Organic Foods	284
	Fad Diets	290
	Botanical and Herbal Products	300
III	MICRONUTRIENTS AND MACRONUTRIENTS
13	Energy	319
14	Protein	325
	Recommended Dietary Intake for Protein and Amino Acids	327
	Methods for Determining Protein and Amino Acid Requirements	330
	Protein Quality	332
	Protein Requirements	334
15	Carbohydrate and Dietary Fiber	343
	Digestion of Disaccharides and Starches	343
	Absorption of Monosaccharides	343
	Metabolism of Glucose	344
	Lactose	346
	Starches	348
	Fiber	349
	Current Dietary Recommendations	353
16	Fats and Fatty Acids	357
	General Considerations	357
	Dietary Fats	357
	Fat Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Metabolism	359
	Essential Fatty Acids	361
	Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Patty Acids (LCPUFAs)	364
	Importance of LCPUFAs in Development	366
17	Calcium, Phosphorous, and Magnesium	387
	Basic Physiology/Homeostasis	387
	Calcium Requirements	389
	Phosphorous Requirements	395
	Magnesium Requirements	396
	Dietary Sources: Calcium and Phosphorous	397
	Dietary Sources: Magnesium	398
18	Iron	403
	Consequences of Iron Deficiency	405
	Iron Metabolism and Factors Affecting Iron Balance	406
	Iron Stores	406
	Iron Intake and Factors Affecting Iron Absorption	407
	Iron Loss	408
	Assessment of Iron Status	409
	Screening for Iron Deficiency	410
	Diagnosis of Iron Deficiency	412
	Specific Recommendations	413
	Screening and Treatment of Iron-Deficiency Anemia	417
19	Trace Elements	423
	Zinc	423
	Copper	431
	Manganese	435
	Selenium	438
	Iodine	441
	Other Trace Elements	443
20	Vitamins	453
	Introduction	453
20-I	Fat-Soluble Vitamins	461
	Vitamin A	461
	Vitamin D	464
	Vitamin E	466
	Vitamin K	468
20-II	Water-Soluble Vitamins	475
	Thiamine (Vitamin B₁)	476
	Riboflavin (Vitamin B₂)	477
	Niacin (Vitamin B₃)	478
	Pyridoxine (Vitamin B₆)	480
	Cobalamin (Vitamin B₁₂)	481
	Folate	483
	Vitamin C	484
	Other	485
	Conclusion	486
21	New Food Ingredients	497
	Biotechnology	497
	Macronutrient Substitutes	507
	Carbohydrate Replacements	507
	Fat Replacers	512
IV	NUTRIENT DELIVERY SYSTEMS
22	Parenteral Nutrition	519
	Catheters	520
	Composition of Solutions for Infants and Children	523
	Ordering Parenteral Nutrition	532
	Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Effects of. Parenteral Nutrition	534
	Compatibilities	535
	Transition to Enteral Feedings	535
	Conclusion	536
23	Enteral Nutrition	541
	Indications for Enteral Tube Feedings: Management of Nutrition-Related Disorders	541
	Enteral Formula Selection for Children 1 to 10 Years of Age	547
	Formulas for Use in Children Older than 10 Years of Age: Standard Tube-Feeding Formulas	548
	Peptide-Based and Elemental Formulas	549
	Oral Supplements	549
	Blenderized Formulas	550
	Formula Concentration and Supplementation with Use of Modular Components	551
	Tube Feeding	552
	Continuous versus Intermittent Feeding	554
	One Final Note	554
V	NUTRITION IN ACUTE AND CHRONIC ILLNESS
24	Assessment of Nutritional Status	559
	Assessment by History	559
	Clinical Assessment	559
	Anthropometry	560
	BMT	564
	Head Circumference	564
	Mid-Arm Circumference	564
	Mid-Arm Circumference-to-Head Circumference Ratio	565
	Nutritional Assessment Through the Measurement of Body Composition	565
	Fat-Fold Measurement	566
	Hydrodensitomentry	567
	Air-Displacement Plethysmographv	568
	Total Body Potassium	568
	Total Body Water	569
	Neutron Activation	569
	Photon and X-ray Absorptiometry	570
	Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis	570
	Total Body Electrical Conductivity	571
	Laboratory Assessment	571
25	Pediatric Feeding and Swallowing Disorders	577
	Introduction	577
	Ccmmon Conditions Associated with Swallowing Disorders	577
	Deferential Diagnosis of Feeding versus Swallowing Disorders	578
	Feeding Disorders	579
	Swallowing Disorders	582
	Evaluation of Pediatric Dysphagia	585
	Treatment	588
	Current Trends and Perspectives in Pediatric Feeding and Swallowing Disorders	590
	Conclusion	594
26	Failure to Thrive	601
	Ecologic Context	601
	Medical Issues in Evaluation and Treatment	603
	Nutritional Evaluation and Treatment	615
	Psychosocial Issues in Evaluation and Treatment	623
	Intervention	625
	Conclusion	628
27	Chronic Diarrheal Disease	637
	Introduction and Pathophysiology	637
	Evaluation of the Infant and Child Aid: Persistent Diarrhea	638
	Differential Diagnosis of Persistent Diarrhea	641
	Summary	648
28	Oral Therapy for Acute Diarrhea	651
	Physiological Principles	651
	The Search for a More Effective ORS	653
	Early, Appropriate Feeding	654
	Oral Therapy for Diarrhea	654
	Common Concerns About ORS in the United States	657
29	Inborn Errors of Metabolism	661
	Definitions	661
	Inheritance	661
	Newborn Screening	661
	Signs and Symptoms of an IEM	662
	Emergency Therapy for a Suspected IEM	663
	Nutritional Therapy Using Synthetic Medical Roods	664
	Other Nutritional Therapies	666
	Other Therapeutic Modalities	669
	Conclusion	671
30	Dietary Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Children	673
	Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus	673
	Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus	693
31	Hypoglycemia in Infants and Children	701
	Introduction and Definition of Hypoglycemia	701
	Clinical Manifestations of Hypoglycemia	703
	Etiology of Hypoglycemia	704
	Evaluation of Hypoglycemia	706
	Differential Diagnosis of Hypoglycemia	703
	Treatment	711
32	Hyperlipidemia and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease	719
	Lipoproteins	720
	Types of Hyperlipidemia	721
	Prevention of Atherosclerosis and Prudent Lifestyle and Diet	723
	Screening for Hyperlipidemia	724
	Treatment	729
33	Pediatric Obesity	733
	Definition and Epidemiology	733
	Pathophysiology	740
	Systems Integrating Energy Intake and Energy Expenditure: Physiology and Molecular Genetics	742
	Clinical and Laboratory Correlates of Obesity in Children	752
	Identification of the Obese Child and Decisions Regarding Therapeutic Intervention	755
	Treatment of the Obese Child	759
34	Food Sensitivity	783
	Definitions	783
	Diagnosis of Food Hypersensitivity	785
	Food Sensitivity Not involving IgE Antibody	792
	Milk Allergy	793
	Treatment	793
	Prognosis	794
	Prevention	795
35	Nutrition and Immunity	801
	Introduction	801
	Early Nutritional-Immunologic System Interactions	802
	Preterm Birth and Infants with Low Birth Weight	807
	Micronutrients and Immunity	807
	Summery	812
36	Nutritional Support for Children with Developmental Disabilities	821
	Introduction	821
	Growth Abnormalities in Children with Neurologic Impairments	821
	Asseismenr	825
	Nutritional Intervention	829
	Conclusion	837
37	Nutrition of Children Who are Critically III	843
	Metabolic reserves and Baseline Requirements	843
	Protein Metabolism	844
	Energy Metabolism	846
	Carbohydrate Metabolism	847
	Lipid Metabolism	843
	Vitamin and Trace Mineral Metabolism	850
	Routes of Nutrient Provision	850
	Conclusion	851
38	Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa	855
	Clinical Features	855
	Assessment	859
39	Nutrition of Children with HIV-1 Infection	875
	Wasting Syndrome	875
	Causes of Malnutrition in HIV and AIDS	878
	The Nutritional Effects of HAAKT	884
	Recommendations for Nutritional Support	886
	Conclusion	890
40	Nutrition for Children with Sickle Cell Disease	901
41	Nutritional Management of Children with Renal Disease	905
	Introduction	905
	Urinary Tract Infections, Vesicoureteral Reflux, and Urinary Incontinence	905
	Hypertension	909
	Kidney Stone Disorders	911
	Renal Tubular Defects	912
	Nephrotic Syndrome	913
	Glomerulonephritis	915
	Acute Renal Failure	915
	Chronic Renal Failure	917
	Vitamins and Trace Mineral?	919
	Children on Dialysis	920
	Renal Transplantation	920
42	Nutritional Management of Children with Cancer	927
	Nutritional Status at Diagnosis	927
	Host-Related Effects on Nutritional Status	927
	Therapy-Related Effects on Nutritional Status	928
	Physiological Factors	929
	Nutritional Screening	930
	Nutritional Assessment	930
	Nutrition Therapy	933
	Tube Feeding	934
	Parenteral Nutrition	936
	The Relationship Between Diet and Cancer	936
43	Inflammatory Bowel Disease	941
	Growth Failure	941
	Role of Cytokines and Endocrine Mediators	941
	Monitoring of Nutritional Status	942
	Nutritional Therapy for IBD	949
	Psychosocial Effects of Nutritional Interventions in the Cars of Children with LED	953
	Summary	955
44	Liver Disease	959
	Nutritional Assessment of the Child with Liver Disease	961
	Malabsorption in Chronic Liver Disease	963
	Ascites Management	974
	Liver Failure	975
	Parenteral Nutrition-Associated Liver Disease	977
45	Cardiac Disease	981
	Undernutrition in CHD	982
	Energy Expenditure	982
	Nutrient Losses	983
	Nutrient Intake	984
	Congestive Heart failure	985
	Cyan one Heart Disease	986
	Circulatory Shunts	986
	Pulmonary Hypertension	987
	Surgery	987
	Nutritional Assessment	983
	Nutritional Support	988
	Nutrient Prescription	989
	Feeding Strategies	994
	Monitoring Outcome	996
46	Nutrition in Cystic Fibrosis	1001
	Diagnosis	1001
	Assessment of Pancreatic Function Status	1003
	Nutritional Care	1004
	Specific Guidelines	1007
	Commonly Encountered Nutritional Problems	1009
	Enzyme Therapy	1012
	Vitamin Therapy	1016
47	The Ketogenic Diet	1021
	History	1021
	Physiological Basis	1021
	Mechanisms of Action	1024
	Indications	1024
	Efficacy	1025
	Contraindications	1026
	Adverse Streets	1028
	The Keto Team	1029
	Calculation of the Ketogenic Diet	1029
	Micronutrient Supplementation	1031
	Injection Protocol	1032
	Maintenance and Follow-Up	1033
	Concurrent Medications and Occur Carbohydrates	1033
	Adjusting the Diet for Optima! Seizure Control	1034
	Discontinuation of the Ketogenic Diet	1034
	Alternative Dietary Therapy	1035
	Conclusions	1035
48	Nutrition and Oral Health	1041
	Introduction	1041
	Dental Caries�An Infectious Disease	1041
	Dietary Influences	1042
	The Costs are Enormous	1045
	Nutritional Effects	1046
	Fluoride Background	1046
	Fluoride Supplements	1047
	Fluorosis	1049
	Fluoride Toxicity	1051
	Role of the Pediatrician	1052
49	Community Nutrition Services	1057
	Nutrition Services Provided through Federal, State and Local Health and Nutrition Agencies	1057
	Health and Nutrition Agencies a Nutrition Resource to Provide Service and Identify Qualified Providers	1059
	Nutrition-Assistance Programs	1064
	Supplemental Food Programs	1069
	Food Distribution Programs	1072
	Where to Seek Nutrition Assistance for Clients	1074
	Other Federal Agencies Providing Nutrition Services to Improve Pediatric Health and Well-Hew?	1075
	Conclusion	1077
50	Food Labeling	1079
	Ingredient Labeling	1079
	The Nutrition Facts Panel	1080
	Nutrition Claims	1085
	Health Claims	1085
	Juice Labeling	1088
	Package Dating	1088
	Conclusion	1089
51	Current Legislation and Regulations for Infant Formulas	1091
52	Food Safety: Infectious Disease	1095
	Introduction	I095
	Epidemiology of Foodborne Disease	1096
	Clinical Manifestations, Diagnosis, and Treatment	1100
	Surveillance for Foodborne Diseases	1103
	Prevention	1105
53	Food Safety: Pesticides, Industrial Chemicals, Toxins, Antimicrobial Preservatives and Irradiation, and Indirect Food Additives	1117
	Introduction	1117
	Sources of Concern for Chemical Food Safety	1119
	Food Irradiation	1128
	Nonnutritive Additives	1133
	APPENDICES
	Appendix A	1143
Table A-1	Exchange Lists for Diabetic Diets	1145
Table A-2	food Exchange Lists	1145
	Appendix B	1167
Table B-1	Conversions From Conventional Units to Systems International (SI) Units	1169
	Appendix C	1199
Table C-1	Representative Value; for Constituents of Human Milk	1201
	Appendix D	1205
Table D-1	CDC Growth Chats	1207
Table D-2	WHO Growth Charts	1225
Table D-3	Low Birth Weight and Intrauterine Growth Charts	1223
Table D-4	Arm Measurements	1238
	Appendix E	1243
Table E-1	Recommended Nutrient Levels of Infant Formulas	1245
	Appendix F	1247
Table F-1	Increasing the Caloric Density of Infant Formula	1249
Table F-2	Cow Milk-Eased Infant Formulas: Label Claim Nutrient Contents	1250
Table F-3	Soy-Based Infant Formulas: Label Claim Nutrient Contents.	1259
Table F-4	Selected Nutrients in Human Milk, Various Forms of Cow Milk, and Goat Milk	1265
	Appendix G	1267
Table G-1	Extensively Hydrolyzed Protein-Based and Amino Acid-Based Formulas for Infants: Label Claim Nutrient Contents	1269
	Appendix H	1273
Table H-1	Milk-Based Follow-up Infant Formulas: Label Claim Nutrient Contents	1275
Table H-2	Soy Follow-up Infant Formulas- Label Claim Nutrient Contents	1279
	Appendix I	1283
Table I-1	Formulas for Infants With Low Birth Weight and Preterm Infants	1235
Table 1-2	Nutrients Provided by Human Milk Fortifiers for Preterm Infants Fed Human Milk	1263
	Appendix J	1291
Table J-1	Dietary Reference intakes Recommended Intakes for individual	1294
Table J-2	Dietary Reference Intakes: Tolerable Upper Intake Levels	1297
Table J-3	Nutrition During Pregnancy	1300
	Appendix K	1303
Fig K-1	MyPyramid	1305
Fig K-2	MyPyramid for Kids	1306
Fig K-3	MyPyramid Enjoy Moving	1303
	Appendix L	1309
Table L-1	Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks Calories and Selected Electrolytes	1311
	Appendix M	1313
Table M-1	Carbohydrate Content of Juices	1315
	Appendix N	1317
Table N-1	Drugs for Which Absorption Is Increased by Food	1319
Table N-2	Drugs for Which Absorption May Be Delayed by Food or Milk	1320
Table N-3	Drugs That Should be Administered on an Empty Stomach	1321
Table N-4	Miscellaneous Food-Nutrient Effects	1322
Table N-5	Drug-Grapefruit Juice Interactions	1324
	Appendix O	1327
Table O-1	Review of Fad Diets and Other Popular Weight-Loss Diets	1329
	Appendix P	1339
Table P-1	Sources of Dietary-Fiber	1341
Table P-2	Available Over-the-Counter Preparations of Fiber	1345
	Appendix Q	1347
Table Q-1	Approximate Calcium Contents of 1 Serving of Some Common Foods That Are Good Sources of Calcium	1349
Table Q-2	Calcium Content of Foods	1351
	Appendix R	1353
Table R-1	Iron Content of Selected Foods	1355
	Appendix S	1357
Table S-1	Zinc Content of Common Household Portions of Selected Foods	1359
	Appendix T	1361
Table T-1	Commercially Available Parenteral Nutrition Solutions	1363
	Appendix U	1365
Table U-1	Enteral Products for Special Indications	1367
Table U-2	Enteral Products Grouped by Usage Indication	1385
Table U-3	Sources of Medical Food Modules for Treatment of Inborn Errors of Metabolism	1387
	Appendix V	1391
Table V-1	Sports/Nutrition Bars	1393
	Appendix W	1395
Table W-1	Mid-Upper Arm Circumference for Length or Height Reference Data	1397
Table W-2	Mid-Upper Arm Circumference for Age Reference Data for Boys Aged 6- 59 Months	1407
Table W-3	Mid-Upper Arm Circumference for Age Reference Data for Girls Aged 6-59 Months	1411
	Appendix X	1415
Table X-1	Saturated and Polyunsaturated Fat and Cholesterol Content of Common Foods	1417
	Appendix Y	1421
Table Y-1	Sodium Content of Foods	1423
	Index	1425