Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Refrigeration

25

History and Fundamentals of Refrigeration Module

25

1.1

Development of Refrigeration

25

1.2

How a Mechanical Refrigerator Operates

26

1.3

Color Coding System in this Text

26

1.4

Heat

27

1.5

Cold

28

Temperature, Pressure, and Measurements Module

28

1.6

Temperature and Temperature Measurement

28

1.7

Basic Arithmetic

30

1.8

Temperature Conversion

32

1.9

Temperature Difference Calculations

33

1.10

Dimensions

33

1.11

Pressure

37

1.12

The Three Physical States

39

1.13

Density

41

1.14

Force

41

1.15

Work

42

1.16

Energy

42

1.17

Power

42

1.18

Unit of Heat

43

1.19

Effect of Pressure on Evaporating Temperatures

46

1.20

Effect of Pressure on Freezing Temperature of Water

47

1.21

Refrigerating Effect of Ice

47

1.22

Ambient Temperature

49

1.23

Heat of Compression

49

1.24

Energy Units

50

Refrigeration Systems and Terms Module

50

1.25

Refrigerant

50

1.26

Heat Transfer

50

1.27

Brine and Sweet Water

51

1.28

Dry Ice

51

1.29

Critical Temperature

52

1.30

Critical Pressure

52

1.31

Enthalpy

52

1.32

Cryogenics

52

1.33

Perfect Gas Equation

53

1.34

Dalton’s Law

54

1.35

Evaporator

54

1.36

Vapor—Gas

54

1.37

Humidity—Relative Humidity

54

1.38

Elementary Refrigerator

54

1.39

Mechanical Refrigerating System

56

1.40

Review of Abbreviations and Symbols

57

1.41

Review of Safety

57

1.42

Test Your Knowledge

58

Chapter 2

Refrigeration Tools and Materials

61

Tubing and Fittings Module

61

2.1

Tubing

61

2.2

Cutting and Bending Tools

64

2.3

Connecting Tubing

66

2.4

Soldered or Brazed Tubing Fittings

69

2.5

Tube Couplings

75

2.6

Swaging Copper Tubing

75

2.7

Tube Constrictor

76

2.8

Pipe Fittings and Sizes

76

Refrigeration Tools Module

77

2.9

Hand Tools

77

Instruments and Gauges Module

88

2.10

Instruments and Gauges

88

2.11

Measuring Tools

92

Supplies and Use Module

94

2.12

Fastening Devices

94

2.13

Refrigeration Supplies

96

2.14

Service Valves

98

2.15

Purging

99

2.16

Evacuating

99

2.17

Review of Safety

99

2.18

Test Your Knowledge

100

Chapter 3

Basic Refrigeration Systems

103

3.1

Ice Refrigeration

103

3.2

Evaporative Refrigeration (Desert Bag)

104

3.3

Evaporative Refrigeration (Snow Making)

104

3.4

Compression System Using Low-Side Float Refrigerant Control

105

3.5

External-Drive (Open) Refrigerating System

106

3.6

Compression System Using High-Side Float Refrigerant Control

107

3.7

Compression System Using Automatic Expansion Valve (AEV) Refrigerant Control

108

3.8

Compression System Using Thermostatically Controlled Expansion Valve (TEV)

108

3.9

Compression System Using Capillary Tube Refrigerant Control

109

3.10

Multiple Evaporator System

110

3.11

Compound Refrigerating Systems

111

3.12

Cascade Refrigerating Systems

113

3.13

Modulating Refrigeration Cycle

114

3.14

Ice Maker

115

3.15

Drinking Water Cooler

116

3.16

Expendable Refrigerant Refrigeration System

117

3.17

Thermoelectric Refrigeration

118

3.18

Dry Ice Refrigeration

118

3.19

Intermittent Absorption System

120

3.20

Continuous-Cycle Absorption System

122

3.21

Solid Absorbent Refrigeration

124

3.22

Sophisticated Commercial Systems

125

3.23

Hot-Gas Defrost

125

3.24

Electric Defrost

128

3.25

Test Your Knowledge

129

Chapter 4

Compression Systems and Compressors

131

Compression Systems Module

131

4.1

Laws of Refrigeration

131

4.2

Compression Cycle

131

4.3

Evaporator

134

4.4

Accumulator

134

4.5

Suction Line

134

4.6

Compressor

135

4.7

Oil Separator

136

4.8

Condenser

137

4.9

Liquid Receiver

139

4.10

Liquid Line

139

4.11

Types of Refrigerant Flow Control

140

4.12

Motor Control

145

Compressors Module

146

4.13

External-Drive Compressors

146

4.14

Hermetic Compressors

147

4.15

Types of Compressors

147

4.16

Motors

168

4.17

Service Valves

168

4.18

Mufflers

169

4.19

Compressor Cooling

169

4.20

Lubrication

170

4.21

Compressor Volumetric Efficiency

170

4.22

Compression Ratio

172

4.23

Check Valves

172

4.24

Unloader

172

4.25

Gaskets

172

4.26

Orings

172

4.27

Crankcase Heater

173

4.28

Review of Safety

173

4.29

Test Your Knowledge

174

Chapter 5

Refrigerant Controls

177

5.1

Compression System Refrigerant Controls

177

5.2

Comparing Refrigerant Controls

202

5.3

Check Valve

202

5.4

Suction Pressure Valves

202

5.5

Review of Safety

203

5.6

Test Your Knowledge

204

Chapter 6

Electrical-Magnetic Fundamentals

207

Electrical Fundamentals Module

207

6.1

Generating Electricity

207

6.2

Types of Electricity

208

6.3

Circuit Fundamentals

210

6.4

Electrical Materials

222

6.5

Magnetism

224

Applied Electronics and Electricity Module

234

6.6

Electronics

234

6.7

Electrical Power

242

6.8

Electrical Codes

250

6.9

Circuit Protection

250

6.10

Review of Safety 253 6.11, Test Your Knowledge

254

Chapter 7

Electric Motors

257

Electric Motors Module

257

7.1

Electric Motor Applications

257

7.2

The Motor Structure

257

7.3

Types of Electric Motors

258

7.4

Motor Speeds

261

7.5

Starting and Running Windings

262

7.6

Starting Current

263

7.7

Motor Connections

264

7.8

Hermetic System Motors

265

7.9

Direct Current and Universal Motors

272

7.10

Motor Horsepower and Motor Characteristics

273

7.11

Electric Motor Grounding

273

7.12

Motor Protection

274

7.13

Motor Temperature

277

7.14

Standard Motor Data

278

7.15

Fan Motors

278

7.16

Shaded-Pole Motors

279

7.1 7

Electronic Variable Speed Motors

280

Servicing Electric Motors Module

282

7.18

Servicing Electric Motors

282

7.19

Pulleys

287

7.20

Belts

288

7.21

Motor Testing Stand1

290

7.22

Servicing and Repairing Hermetic Motors

290

7.23

Review of Safely

292

7.24

Test Your Knowledge

292

Chapter 8

Electric Circuits and Controls

295

Electric Control Circuits Module

295

8.1

Electrical Circuits—Complete Wiring Diagram

295

8.2

Electrical Circuits—Ladder Diagram

297

8.3

Control Systems—Fundamentals

297

Electric Controls Module

309

8.4

Refrigerator and Freezer Controls

309

8.5

Ice Maker Controls

310

8.6

Comfort Cooling Air Conditioning Controls

314

8.7

Central Air Conditioning Controls

315

8.8

Water Cooler Controls

316

8.9

Remote Temperature Sensing Elements

316

8.10

Pressure Motor Control S

317

8.11

Motor Safety Controls

317

8.12

Motor Starting Relays

319

8.13

Automatic Defrost Controls

324

8.14

Semiautomatic Defrost Controls

326

8.15

Hot-Gas Defrost Controls

327

8.16

Ice Bank Controls

328

8.17

De-Ice Controls

329

8.18

Humidity Controls

330

8.19

Defrosting Timers

330

8.20

Review of Safety

331

8.21

Test Your Knowledge

331

Chapter 9

Refrigerants

335

9.1

Refrigerants and the Ozone Layer

335

9.2

Requirements for Refrigerants

337

9.3

Use of Pressure-Temperature Curves

337

9.4

Grouping and Classification of Refrigerants

338

9.5

Croup a Refrigerants

338

9.6

Group B Refrigerants

351

9.7

Combustible Refrigerants

352

9.8

Expendable Refrigerants

352

9.9

Water as a Refrigerant

354

9.10

Food Freezants

354

9.11

Cryogenic Fluids

354

9.12

Refrigerant Cylinders

355

9.13

Use of Pressure-Temperature Tables

357

9.14

Head Pressures (High Side)

357

9.15

Refrigerator Temperatures

357

9.16

Refrigerant Applications

358

9.17

Changing/Identifying Refrigerants

358

9.18

Amount of Refrigerant Required in a System

358

9.19

Refrigeration Oil

361

9.20

Moisture in Refrigerant

361

9.21

Review of Safety

362

9.22

Test Your Knowledge

363

Chapter 10

Refrigerant Recovery/Recycling/Reclaiming

365

10.1

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and the Ozone Layer

365

10.2

Recovery, Recycling, Reclaiming of Refrigerants

367

10.3

Refrigerant Recovery Equipment

367

10.4

Refrigerant Recycling Equipment

372

10.5

Refrigerant Reclaiming Procedure

375

10.6

Relrofit

377

10.7

Mobile Air Conditioning

378

10.8

Review of Safety

379

10.9

Test Your Knowledge

379

Chapter 11

Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers

381

11.1

Preserving Foods by Refrigeration and Freezing

381

11.2

Refrigerator and Freezer Insulation

382

11.3

Refrigerator—Single-Door, Manual Defrost

382

11.4

Refrigerator-Freezer—Manual Defrost

384

11.5

Refrigerator-Freezer—Automatic Defrost

387

11.6

Refrigerator-Freezer—Frost-Free

394

11.7

Refrigerator-Freezer—Frost-Free, Side-By-Side

395

11.8

Solid-State Ice Maker

401

11.9

Chest-Type Freezers

401

11.10

Upright Freezers

407

11.11

Care of Refrigerator or Freezer

409

11.12

Ice Accumulation in Cabinet Insulation

410

11.13

Butter Conditioner

410

11.14

Cabinet Hardware

411

11.15

Cabinet Gaskets

412

11.16

Repairing Finishes

413

11.17

Cabinet Thermometers

413

11.18

Review of Safety

414

11.19

Test Your Knowledge

414

Chapter 12

Servicing and Installing Small Hermetic Systems

417

12.1

Instruments, Tools, and Supplies

417

12.2

Installing Refrigerators and Freezers

419

12.3

Troubleshooting the Hermetic Refrigerator-Freezer

421

12.4

Hermetic Servicing

427

12.5

External Servicing Operations

427

12.6

Internal Service Operations

433

12.7

Gauge (Service) Manifold Types and Construction

434

12.8

Hermetic Service Valves and Adaptors

438

12.9

Locating Refrigerant Leaks

444

12.10

Repairing Leaks

448

12.11

Refrigerant Recovery and Evacuation

448

12.12

Diagnosing Component Problems

452

12.13

Replacing System Components

459

12.14

Evacuating a System with a Vacuum Pump

463

12.15

Overhauling a Hermetic System

470

12.16

Review of Safety

470

12.17

Test Your Knowledge

471

Chapter 13

Commercial Systems

473

Commercial Systems Module

473

13.1

Construction of Refrigeration Components

473

13.2

Refrigeration Components

473

13.3

Packaged Commercial System Components

475

13.4

Commercial Evaporators

496

Commercial Systems--Controls Module

513

13.5

Refrigerant Controls

513

13.6

Motor Controls

513

13.7

Ice Maker Controls

519

13.8

Vending Machine Controls

519

13.9

Defrost Timers

520

13.10

Pressure Regulating Valves

524

13.11

Compressor Protection Devices

529

13.12

Manual Valves

536

13.13

Refrigerant Lines

539

13.14

Engine-Driven Systems

543

13.15

Review of Safety

544

13.16

Test Your Knowledge

544

Chapter 14

Commercial Systems—Applications

547

14.1

Commercial Cabinet Construction

547

14.2

Supermarkets

548

14.3

Grocery Cabinet (Reach-In Cabinet)

548

14.4

Walk-In Cabinet

550

14.5

Display Cases

553

14.6

Frozen Food Storage Cabinet

556

14.7

Fast-Freezing Case

558

14.8

Ice Cream Cabinet

558

14.9

Soda Fountain

559

14.10

Dispensing Freezers

559

14.11

Modular Refrigeration Systems

562

14.12

Water Cooler

562

14.13

Automatic Ice Maker

563

14.14

Vending Machines

564

14.15

Milk Cooler

565

14.16

Bakeries

565

14.17

Refrigerant-To-Water Heat Recovery System

566

14.18

Laboratory Refrigerated Incubators

566

14.19

Industrial Applications

567

14.20

Review of Safety

568

14.21

Test Your Knowledge

569

Chapter 15

Servicing and Installing Commercial Systems

571

Installing Commercial Systems Module

571

15.1

Types of Commercial Installations

571

15.2

Installing Condensing’ Units

572

15.3

Installing Evaporators

574

15.4

Installing Refrigerant Piping

575

15.5

Electrical Connections

581

15.6

Testing Code Installations

582

15.7

Evacuating System

586

15.8

Checking System before Starting

586

15.9

Charging Commercial Systems

586

15.10

Starting a System

588

Servicing Commercial Systems Module

590

15.11

Servicing Commercial Units

590

15.12

Service Equipment

591

15.13

General Service Instructions

591

15.14

Servicing Condensing Units

596

15.15

Service Notes

625

15.16

Summary of Refrigerator Mechanism Servicing

625

15.17

Periodic Inspections

625

15.18

Locating Troubles

625

15.19

Refrigeration Service Contracting

628

15.20

Refrigerant Recovering and Recycling

628

15.21

Review of Safety

629

15.22

Test Your Knowledge

630

Chapter 16

Commercial Systems—Heat Loads and Piping

633

Heat Loads Module

633

16.1

Heat Load

634

16.2

Thermodynamics of the Refrigeration Cycle

645

16.3

Evaporator and Condensing Unit Capacities

650

16.4

Evaporator Installations

651

16.5

Water-Cooling Loads

659

16.6

Ice Cream Freezing and Storage Load

660

16.7

System Capacity

661

16.8

Compressor Capacities

662

16.9

Cascade System

664

16.10

Two-Stage Compressor

664

16.11

Bypass Cycle

664

16.12

Motor Sizes

666

16.13

Condenser Capacities

666

16.14

Servicing: Refrigeration Troubleshooting

669

Lines and Piping Module

670

16.15

Refrigerant Lines and Piping

670

16.16

Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER)

681

16.17

Review of Safety

683

16.18

Test Your Knowledge

683

Chapter 17

Absorption Systems—Principles and Applications

685

Absorption System Principles Module

685

17.1

The Absorption System

685

1 7.2

Types of Absorption Systems

685

17.3

Principle of the Solid Absorption System

686

1 7.4

Efficiency of Absorption Systems

686

17.5

Principle of the Intermittent Absorption System

686

17.6

Principle of the Continuous Absorption System

687

17.7

Installing an Absorption Refrigerator

692

17.8

Portable Absorption Refrigerators

695

17.9

Absorption Refrigerators for Mobile Homes

696

Residential and Commercial Absorption Systems Module

696

17.10

Residential Absorption Air Conditioners

696

17.11

Commercial Absorption System

702

17.12

Absorption Unit for Air Conditioning and Heating

702

17.13

Servicing Absorption Refrigerators

704

17.14

Review of Safety

706

17.15

Test Your Knowledge

706

Chapter 18

Special Refrigeration Systems and Applications

709

18.1

Transportation Refrigeration

709

18.2

Portable Air Conditioning/Spot Cooling

715

18.3

Thermoelectric Refrigeration

715

18.4

Vortex Tube

717

18.5

Jet Cooling Systems

718

18.6

Multistage Systems—Cascade and Compound

719

18.7

Snow Making

721

18.8

Heat Pipe

721

18.9

Immersion (Fast Freeze)

722

18.10

Cryogenic Refrigeration

723

18.11

Ozonized Ice and Water

724

18.12

Sterling Cycle

724

18.13

Review of Safety

725

18.14

Test Your Knowledge

725

Chapter 19

Fundamentals of Air Conditioning

727

Air Movement and Measurement Module

727

19.1

Definition of Air Conditioning

727

19.2

Air—Atmosphere

728

19.3

Physical Properties of Air

728

19.4

Vapor Barriers

736

19.5

Air Movement

736

19.6

Climate

740

19.7

Heat Insulation

742

Air Quality Module

744

19.8

Air Quality

744

19.9

Commercial and Residential Air Quality Systems

750

19.10

Comfort Conditions

753

19.11

Noise

754

19.12

Review of Safety

758

19.13

Test Your Knowledge

759

Chapter 20

Basic Heating and Air Conditioning Systems

761

20.1

Gas-Fired Gravity Heating System

761

20.2

Gas-Fired Forced-Air Heating

762

20.3

Gas-Fired Hydronic Heating

763

20.4

Oil-Fired Forced-Air Heating

765

20.5

Oil-Fired Hydronic Heating

766

20.6

Electrical Resistance Heating

767

20.7

Radiant Heating

768

20.8

Air-To-Air Heat Pumps

768

20.9

Geothermal Heat Pump Systems

771

20.10

Room Humidifiers

773

20.11

Room Dehumidifiers

773

20.12

Room Air Conditioners

773

20.13

Central Air Conditioners

775

20.14

Absorption Cycle Systems